A vegetarian is someone who does not eat meat or fish. There are different types of vegetarians depending on whether they consume eggs or dairy products. For example, lacto-ovo vegetarians eat both dairy and eggs, lacto vegetarians eat dairy but not eggs, and ovo vegetarians eat eggs but not dairy. Vegans, on the other hand, avoid all animal-derived foods. Some people follow more flexible styles, such as pescatarians, who eat fish but no other meat, or flexitarians, who mostly avoid meat but may eat it occasionally.
People choose a vegetarian diet for many reasons, including health, disease prevention, environmental concerns, animal welfare, or religious beliefs. By avoiding meat and fish and focusing on plant-based foods like vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, and grains, vegetarians can enjoy a balanced and nutritious diet. Following a vegetarian lifestyle also offers the opportunity to explore diverse culinary traditions and experiment with creative ways of cooking and preparing food.
It is said that the name “Ganmodoki” originates from the fact that, as a dish in Buddhist vegetarian cuisine, it was created to mimic the flavor and texture of goose (gan) meat.
The term “modoki,” as used in “ganmodoki,” refers to something made to resemble something else. While there are various theories regarding its etymology, the most widely accepted theory is that ganmodoki came to be called so because it was traditionally said to resemble wild goose meat (gan). Ganmodoki, made with tofu as a base and vegetables added to create a flavor and texture reminiscent of meat, is one of Japan’s most representative “modoki” dishes.
“Modoki” dishes originated within shojin ryori (Buddhist vegetarian cuisine), which developed alongside Buddhism. Within a culinary culture that avoids meat and fish, considerable culinary ingenuity was developed to use plant-based ingredients—such as tofu, yuba, fu, vegetables, and mushrooms—to replicate the appearance, texture, and flavor of animal-based ingredients.
In other words, the defining characteristic of “modoki” dishes is the use of plant-based ingredients to resemble other ingredients.
The Culinary Art of Shojin Ryori
There are various plant-based foods designed to mimic different types of meat.
The development of shojin ryori did not merely result in the creation of dishes that exclude meat and fish. To compensate for the mild flavors of plant-based ingredients and create satisfying meals, cooks made creative use of seasonings such as sesame oil, miso, and soy sauce, along with techniques such as deep-frying, grilling, simmering, and pureeing.
Within this context, the concept of preparing plant-based ingredients to resemble other ingredients also became highly refined.
This philosophy can also be seen in modern plant-based cuisine. Making hamburgers or fried chicken using soy-based meat substitutes can be viewed as a modern form of “modoki” cuisine, in the sense that it recreates meat dishes using plant-based ingredients.
However, it is important to note that not all plant-based cuisine is “modoki” cuisine.
Beyond Modoki: The Edomae Sushi Approach
Avocado sushi clearly brings out the high-quality plant-based fats found in avocados.
The difference between “modoki” cuisine and Edomae sushi lies in what the plant-based ingredients are intended to express.
In “modoki” cuisine, plant-based ingredients are made to resemble other ingredients. For example, tofu is prepared to resemble meat, while yuba or fu may be used in dishes that evoke fish or meat. In this context, “resembling something else” is the very essence of the culinary expression.
In contrast, when plant-based ingredients are used in Edomae sushi, there is no need to make them resemble fish or meat.
With shiitake mushrooms, the focus is on their aroma and umami; with vegetables, on their seasonal sweetness and fragrance; and with seaweed, on its unique flavor. By applying techniques such as searing, simmering, pickling, or curing, and combining these ingredients with vinegared rice, the result is a piece of sushi whose character comes from those ingredients themselves.
In other words, “modoki” cuisine is about “expressing something else,” while Edomae sushi is about “expressing the ingredient itself.”
Of course, this does not mean the two are completely distinct. There are dishes in shojin ryori that highlight the ingredients themselves, and there are techniques in Edomae sushi that significantly alter the appearance and properties of the ingredients.
Nevertheless, when plant-based ingredients are used in sushi, the fact that they are treated as sushi ingredients in their own right—rather than as substitutes for fish—reflects a distinctive philosophy of Edomae sushi.
In 2019, the sake brewery “Nanbu Bijin” became the first sake in the world to receive vegan certification from organizations such as the UK’s “The Vegan Society.”
In the production of alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, and sake, animal-derived “clarifying agents” may sometimes be used. Common examples include isinglass (made from fish bladders), bovine gelatin, egg whites, and casein (milk protein). These substances are used to remove cloudiness, improve clarity, and stabilize the quality of beverages.
Because these clarifying agents often leave little to no trace in the final product after serving their purpose during production, they may not always be required to be listed on ingredient labels. As a result, consumers cannot necessarily determine from the label alone whether animal-derived substances were used during the manufacturing process.
For vegans, even if no animal-derived substances remain in the final product, the use of animal-derived materials or processing aids during production may conflict with their ethical values. Therefore, transparent information about manufacturing processes is essential so that they can make informed choices with confidence.
On the other hand, sake is fundamentally made from rice, rice koji, and water, and generally does not contain animal-derived ingredients. For this reason, sake is often considered suitable for vegans. However, vegan certification requires verification not only of the ingredients but also of the entire manufacturing process.
Specifically, various aspects of production are reviewed, including the use of clarifying agents and filtration aids, the management of manufacturing equipment, cleaning agents, packaging materials, and even label adhesives, to confirm that no animal-derived materials are involved.
In other words, vegan-certified sake does not simply mean sake “made only from rice, rice koji, and water.” Rather, it refers to sake that has been verified by an independent certification body to be free from animal-derived ingredients and materials throughout the entire process, from raw materials and production to packaging.
However, even breweries that do not use animal-derived ingredients or clarifying agents may not obtain vegan certification, as certification requires an application process, audits, certification fees, and ongoing compliance management. For this reason, many breweries have not pursued official vegan certification.
Therefore, sake without vegan certification is not necessarily non-vegan. However, products bearing a vegan certification mark have been verified by an independent third-party organization, providing greater confidence for vegan consumers and international travelers.
Since vegan certification standards vary among certification bodies and there is currently no globally unified standard, this article introduces sake breweries that have obtained certification from various organizations as of June 2026.
Sake Breweries with Vegan Certification
Nanbu Bijin (Ninohe City, Iwate Prefecture)
Certification Bodies: The Vegan Society (UK), VegeProject Japan Certified Sake Products: Nanbu Bijin Tokubetsu Junmai / Junmai Ginjo / Junmai Daiginjo Shinshira Yamada Nishiki / Sugar-Free Umeshu, and others (almost all products except seasonal limited editions, etc.) Website:https://www.nanbubijin.co.jp/
Imada Sake Brewery (Higashi-Hiroshima City, Hiroshima Prefecture)
Certification Body: VegeProject Japan Certified Sake Products: Fukucho (Specific certified products have not been disclosed) Website:https://fukucho.jp/
Shimazaki Shuzo (Nasukarasuyama City, Tochigi Prefecture)
Certification Body: VegeProject Japan Certified Sake Products: Tōrikishi (Specific certified products have not been disclosed) Website:https://azumarikishi.co.jp/
Aoki Sake Brewery (Minamiuonuma City, Niigata Prefecture)
Certification Body: VegeProject Japan Certified Sake Products: Tsuru-rei (Specific certified products have not been disclosed) Website:https://www.kakurei.co.jp/
Hachinohe Shuzo (Hachinohe City, Aomori Prefecture)
Certification Body: VegeProject Japan Certified Sake Products: Mutsu Hassen (Specific certified products have not been disclosed) Website:https://mutsu8000.com/
Doii Sake Brewery (Kakegawa City, Shizuoka Prefecture)
Certification Body: VegeProject Japan Certified Sake Products: Kaiun (Specific certified products have not been disclosed) Website:https://kaiunsake.com/
Tenzan Sake Brewery (Ogi City, Saga Prefecture)
Certification Body: VegeProject Japan Certified Sake Products: Tenzan / Nanada (Specific certified products have not been disclosed) Website:https://www.tenzan.co.jp/
Akita Sake (Daisen City, Akita Prefecture)
Certification Body: VegeProject Japan Certified Sake Products: Kariho / Dewa Tsuru (Specific certified products have not been disclosed) Website:https://www.igeta.jp/
Certification Body: VegeProject Japan Certified Sake Products: Shizenkyo / Gakki Masamune (Specific certified products have not been disclosed) Website:https://www.daikichihonten.co.jp/
Yoshida Sake Brewery (Hakusan City, Ishikawa Prefecture)
Certification Body: VegeProject Japan Certified Sake Products: Tedorikawa / Yoshida Kura u (Specific certified products have not been disclosed) Website:https://tedorigawa.com/
Toshimori Sake Brewery (Akaiwa City, Okayama Prefecture)
Certification Body: VegeProject Japan Certified Sake Products: Sake Ichijiku (Specific certified products have not been disclosed) Website:https://www.sakehitosuji.co.jp/
Certification Body: VegeProject Japan Certified Sake Product: Asama-yama (Specific certified products have not been disclosed) Website:https://www.asama-sakagura.co.jp/
Finally, when pairing sake with Edomae sushi, crisp, dry styles of sake have traditionally been preferred, as they enhance the delicate aromas and flavors of the sushi toppings without overpowering them. However, as richer and fattier sushi ingredients have become increasingly popular in recent years, more full-bodied and aromatic sake styles are also being selected to create harmonious pairings.
For vegetarian and vegan sushi, sake can play an even more important role. Compared with conventional Edomae sushi, which often includes seafood rich in umami compounds such as amino acids, plant-based sushi generally contains fewer naturally occurring amino acids. The umami, aroma, and complexity of sake can therefore complement these lighter flavors, adding depth and enhancing the overall dining experience.
Vegan-certified sake provides vegan diners with both confidence in the production process and an opportunity to appreciate the harmony between sake and plant-based sushi fully.
Kochi’s Inaka sushi (pronounced inaka-zushi in Japanese) is a unique style of sushi that developed in the mountainous regions of the prefecture. Unlike typical nigiri sushi (pronounced nigiri-zushi), which highlights seafood, Inaka sushi is defined by topping vinegared rice with locally harvested vegetables and wild mountain greens.
Although Kochi Prefecture faces the Pacific Ocean and is known for its seafood, Inaka sushi originated in inland areas where fresh fish was scarce. It emerged from the ingenuity of mountain communities, who created special dishes using the ingredients they had on hand. At the time, rice was a precious commodity, and sushi was mainly prepared for special occasions such as weddings, funerals, and festivals. Compared to fish-based sushi, Inaka sushi was more affordable and kept longer, eventually becoming a staple in everyday life.
Representative Ingredients
The main ingredients of Inaka sushi are familiar staples in mountain villages:
Myoga (Japanese ginger): Boiled and pickled in sweet vinegar, myoga ginger highlights its refreshing aroma and vibrant color. It is traditionally prepared to welcome guests.
Ryukyu (taro stem): Also called hasuimo, this taro variety is eaten only for its stem, which has a crisp, satisfying texture. The stems are lightly prepared to maintain their crunch.
Konjac: In areas where fried tofu was not readily available, mountain communities used konjac as a substitute. The konjac is shaped into a pouch, cut, and simmered in a sweet-savory sauce to absorb flavor.
Shiitake mushrooms: Simmered with dashi, sugar, and soy sauce to enhance their natural umami. Some recipes also include small dried fish or finely grated raw fish for a simple, rustic flavor.
Bamboo shoots and zenmai (royal fern): Seasonal mountain vegetables that appear primarily in early spring.
Each ingredient is individually seasoned and placed on slightly sweet vinegared rice, then gently pressed. While visually similar to nigiri sushi, Inaka sushi’s charm lies in its mild flavor, which allows the natural taste of the ingredients to shine. Its colorful presentation—red myoga, green ryukyu, dark shiitake, and yellow bamboo shoots—reflects the vibrant hues characteristic of Kochi’s cuisine.
Seasoning and Vinegared Rice
Inaka sushi is made with slightly sweet vinegared rice, seasoned with a balanced mix of vinegar and sugar. The toppings are often simmered in a sweet-savory sauce, creating a gentle, rounded flavor profile. Rather than relying on strong saltiness or fatty richness, the dish is defined by the harmony of dashi and sweet vinegar. In Kochi, citrus fruits such as yuzu are sometimes added to the sushi vinegar, giving the rice a subtle aromatic note.
Role as Festive Food
Traditionally, Inaka sushi was prepared not for daily meals, but for special occasions such as festivals, celebrations, or visits from guests. The sight of community members arranging colorful sushi on large platters symbolizes the cooperative culture of mountain villages. Today, Inaka sushi can be enjoyed at local restaurants, farmers’ markets, and specialty shops throughout the prefecture, including around Kochi City, making it accessible for both locals and tourists.
Modern Significance
Inaka sushi is often plant-based, making it well-suited for vegans and vegetarians. However, its essence lies not in replacing fish-based sushi, but in the creativity and resourcefulness of mountain communities using local ingredients. As a “mountain sushi” distinct from ocean-based nigiri, Inaka sushi reflects the climate, landscape, and daily life of Kochi, representing a unique regional food culture.
When people hear “Shojin Ryori,” some might imagine a simple meal with just one soup and one dish. On the other hand, thanks to media coverage, others might picture luxurious, elaborate cuisine. Shojin Ryori began as the meals of Buddhist monks, which seem quite simple at first glance. However, dishes served as offerings to the Buddha or for special occasions—called “Hare” meals, traditional celebratory menus—can be elaborate enough to rival kaiseki cuisine at high-end Japanese restaurants.
This guide will help you understand the essence of Shojin Ryori and experience its depth firsthand.
What is Shojin?
The term “Shojin” (精進) comes either from Shoshojin (正精進), one of the Eightfold Paths taught by Shakyamuni Buddha to escape life’s suffering, or from Shojin, one of the Six Paramitas in Mahayana Buddhism.
Shojin in the Six Paramitas: Fuse (布施), Jikai (持戒), Ninniku (忍辱), Shojin (精進), Zenjo (禅定), Chie (智慧)
The concept corresponds to the ancient Indian Sanskrit term “Virya,” meaning “the mental effort to abandon harmful deeds and cultivate good ones” or “the single-minded pursuit of the Buddha Way without distraction.” Though hard for most people to grasp, it basically means not being lax—to devote oneself wholeheartedly to Buddhist practice.
Shojin Ryori—the cuisine that developed to support the health of practicing monks—is more than just vegetarian food. It is part of spiritual cultivation. Its purpose is not to indulge the taste buds, but to purify the mind and body and support practice. Every aspect—from ingredient selection and cooking methods to presentation and the act of eating—is an extension of the practice itself.
The Five Precepts (Gokai)
Shojin Ryori is rooted in the Five Precepts (五戒) that monks and Buddhists follow:
Fuseshokai（不殺生戒）: Do not harm living beings → no meat or fish
Fuchutoukai（不偸盗戒）: Do not steal
Fujainkai（不邪淫戒）: Avoid improper sexual conduct
Fumougokai（不妄語戒）: Do not lie
Fuonjukai（不飲酒戒）: Do not drink alcohol
Many Zen temples also have signs at their gates warning, “No entry for those consuming strong-smelling vegetables or alcohol (不許入葷酒山門).” These pungent vegetables—garlic, leeks, shallots, onions, and chives—along with alcohol, are avoided because they can hinder spiritual practice.
What is Gokun (五葷)?
Shojin Ryori avoids:
Birds, beasts, fish, and shellfish
The five pungent vegetables (garlic, leeks, shallots, onions, and chives)
Instead, it focuses on vegetables, beans, tofu, seaweed, and grains. Flavor, texture, and appearance are carefully balanced through cooking techniques and presentation. In short, Shojin Ryori is more than just meat-free cuisine; it is food designed to calm the mind and support spiritual practice. Originating in Mahayana Buddhism, it spread from India to China, Korea, and Japan.
Historical Development in Japan
Shojin Ryori began as a simple, austere diet guided by religious taboos. Over time, Japanese culinary sensibilities transformed it into a refined cuisine with vegetables as the stars of each dish.
From the Kamakura period onward, influenced by Zen Buddhism, Shojin Ryori became more sophisticated. Broths incorporated kombu and dried shiitake mushrooms, and soy-based items like goma tofu (sesame tofu), yuba (tofu skin), and ganmodoki (fried soybean patties) flourished. Techniques were refined to maximize umami, texture, and visual appeal—all without animal ingredients.
Shojin Ryori also influenced the development of kaiseki cuisine in the tea ceremony, becoming a cornerstone of Japanese culinary tradition. Today, its legacy continues primarily in Kyoto, in temples and specialty restaurants.
Modern Practice and Tourist Experience
Over time, meals consumed by laypeople during Buddhist ceremonies or celebrations also came to be called “Shojin Ryori,” broadening its meaning.
Today, Shojin Ryori is recognized not just as a religious practice but also as the origin of vegan and plant-based cuisine. Its true essence lies in honoring life, calming the mind, and harmonizing with nature, not merely following dietary restrictions.
Visitors can also enjoy Shojin Ryori as a tourist experience, such as Shojin Kaiseki at temple lodgings. These visually striking, multi-course meals—featuring tofu, vegetables, and seaweed prepared in various ways—offer a unique cultural experience enjoyed by visitors.
Staying at historic sites like Koyasan provides an opportunity to experience the spirit of ascetic practice and Japanese Buddhist culture through Shojin Ryori.
