Many Westerners find black nori spooky, leading some to avoid onigiri (rice balls) and norimaki (rolled sushi). Yet it’s an indispensable ingredient in Japanese sushi, with sushi chefs even saying they “eat the aroma of nori.” Its appeal isn’t merely about flavor—it’s supported by scientifically backed aromatic compounds. Let’s take a closer look at how nori’s aroma directly contributes to the deliciousness of sushi.
One of the main components of nori’s aroma is dimethyl sulfide (DMS), a volatile sulfur compound. DMS contributes to nori’s distinctive “ocean aroma” and is detectable at very low concentrations, making nori’s flavor highly memorable. Additionally, nori contains aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, esters, and decomposition products derived from fatty acids. These elements create the nori’s complex fragrance.
Nori also contains umami components like free amino acids, taurine, and inosinic acid. The combination of aroma and taste ensures that the flavor and deliciousness of nori are richly perceived the moment it’s eaten. DMS, in particular, while not directly contributing sweetness or umami, triggers the brain to associate its “sea aroma” with freshness and rich flavor. This creates an effect where simply smelling it anticipates deliciousness. The aroma that gently rises immediately after cutting or upon entering the mouth naturally conveys the seaweed’s inherent flavor, drawing out a deeper taste experience.
Furthermore, there is evidence suggesting an interaction between aroma and umami. The umami components in nori, such as free amino acids (like glutamic acid) and inosinic acid, may work synergistically with volatile compounds to enhance how the flavor is perceived. While this relationship hasn’t been fully quantified, research in sensory science underscores the close connection between smell and taste, highlighting the importance of aroma in the overall sushi experience.
Sushi chefs leverage this property, employing techniques to maximize aroma through nori selection, timing of toasting or searing, and careful storage management. Furthermore, they cut or roll the nori immediately before serving to diffuse its aroma into the air, directly appealing to the customer’s sense of smell. Thus, the aroma of nori is not merely a flavor; it is a crucial element that determines the overall quality of sushi, resulting from the combination of its chemical properties and the chef’s skill.
Fatty tuna and conger eel, along with squid and shrimp known for their sweetness, are sometimes served with salt instead of nikiri shoyu (soy sauce). A touch of grated yuzu zest or a few drops of kabosu juice are often added for their refreshing aroma.
It can be viewed from three angles: how chemistry shapes flavor, how technique refines timing, and how our senses perceive texture and aroma.
In sushi, using salt or citrus is not merely seasoning—it is a refined technique to balance umami, aroma, and texture delicately.
Salt enhances sushi’s flavor because it does more than just season. Taste receptors in the thousands of taste buds on the tongue’s surface are electrically stimulated by sodium ions from added salt, which send a “salty” signal to the brain. At the same time, sodium ions help glutamic and inosinic acids—the key umami compounds—bind more effectively to the receptors, amplifying the taste response. In other words, salt not only imparts saltiness but also heightens the sensitivity of umami receptors, enhancing the fish’s natural savory flavor.
Furthermore, salt gently draws out excess moisture from the surface of the fish through osmosis. This concentrates umami components such as free amino acids and nucleic acids, while reducing any fishy odor and sharpening the flavor profile.
A small amount of salt is also believed to stimulate saliva production, which helps counter the numbing effect of fat on the taste buds. As a result, flavor compounds reach the tongue more readily, making the sweetness and richness of the fat feel more distinct.
Citrus fruits, on the other hand, are rich in volatile aromatic compounds such as limonene. The refreshing scent that fills the nasal cavity when you chew conveys a sense of freshness. Meanwhile, acidic components like citric acid cut through the heaviness of the fat, leaving the palate clean and refreshed, and making the next piece even more enjoyable.
In essence, salt and citrus engage different senses—the tongue and the nose—not merely adding to sushi’s flavor, but bringing out the ingredients’ natural qualities and creating perfect harmony.
Traditional sushi restaurants never serve modern sushi.
Traditionally, nigiri sushi strives to perfect the taste, aroma, texture, and appearance of the fish in a single piece. Sushi chefs never layer different toppings on one piece, because combining the flavors, aromas, and richness of multiple fish makes it difficult to fully appreciate each fish’s natural flavor in a single bite. The texture of each topping, its balance with the shari, and the beauty of its color and precise cuts are all carefully considered to preserve the complete taste and visual harmony of a single topping.
That said, some sushi restaurants, aiming to showcase their unique style, may serve combinations that emphasize visual impact, such as squid topped with sea urchin, salmon roe, or caviar. Each piece of sushi is a complete dish in itself, and this act is somewhat like eating meat and fish dishes together. In such cases, the technique a sushi chef should employ involves harmonizing the natural flavors with salt and citrus to draw out the squid’s rich sweetness, while meticulously adjusting the knife work to alter the squid’s texture.
This is not to say that modern sushi is bad, as shown in the image at the beginning. Undoubtedly, layered flavors can create a lingering taste and rich depth. Even at traditional sushi restaurants, if regular customers request such modern sushi, it may be served, but in reality, few customers ever ask for it.
In Japan’s past, sushi was primarily known for its light and refreshing taste. Edo-period nigiri sushi centered on toppings like white-fleshed fish (such as hirame) or hikarimono (such as kohada) cured with vinegar or salt, where “freshness” and “clean, light flavors” were prized. Fatty fish spoiled easily and were not particularly favored among Edo diners.
However, as time progressed, food values underwent a significant shift. Advances in refrigeration and freezing technology made it possible to handle fatty fish while keeping them fresh, propelling toro, yellowtail, and salmon to become the stars of sushi. Toro, in particular, was once considered a “discarded part,” but is now celebrated worldwide as the “ultimate flavor.” To modern palates, fatty fish have a “melting richness” reminiscent of marbled beef, and this sensation fuels the popularity of fatty fish.
In recent years, fish such as blackthroat seaperch (nodoguro), splendid alfonsino (kinmedai), broadbanded thornyhead (kichiji), largehead hairtail (tachiuo), bigeyed greeneye (mehikari), and gnomefish (kuromutsu)—once rarely eaten by the public—have gained prominence as premium sushi toppings. These fish are often rich in fat and possess a deep umami flavor, embodying the “richness” and melt-in-the-mouth umami sought by modern palates.
Using fatty fish in sushi demands advanced craftsmanship. For fish like kinmedai and nodoguro, which have beautiful skin, special techniques are needed to highlight the skin’s beauty and the aromatic richness of the fat. Furthermore, to accentuate the natural sweetness in the fat, the temperature and acidity of the shari (vinegared rice), as well as the type of vinegar blend used, are subtly adjusted to balance the umami of the fat with the overall dish.
Through this accumulation of techniques, sushi chefs have refined their skill in “utilizing fat as umami.” Consequently, fatty fish have become not merely “rich ingredients,” but a canvas for the chef’s artistry and skill. Furthermore, modern taste preferences are underpinned by shifts in Japanese dietary habits. Increased consumption of fatty foods like meat and butter, coupled with palates accustomed to processed foods and chemical seasonings, now responds more strongly to rich, fatty, or salty flavors than to subtler tastes. This environment also fuels the growing preference for fatty fish.
Moreover, the influence of media and social networks heightens expectations of deliciousness even before tasting.
Thus, the fatty fish once shunned byEdo-period people now captivates as a “fish representing sushi.” This shift in taste can be seen as a uniquely modern symbol of affluence, born from technological progress and cultural sophistication.
Nigiri sushi is perfectly complete with just soy sauce and wasabi.
― From the Science of Taste, Culinary Techniques, and Cultural Background ―
Why do soy sauce and wasabi alone complete the flavor of sushi? It is because the umami and aroma of the seafood, the acidity of the vinegared rice, the chef’s skill, and the values of Japan’s unique food culture all unite, come together harmoniously in the mouth.
The umami components in seafood, such as glutamic acid, inosinic acid, and succinic acid, combine with the acetic acid in the vinegared rice and the amino acids in the soy sauce to create a deep flavor. Soy sauce integrates these umami flavors, and its fermented aromatic components (phenols and furanones) blend with the natural aroma of the seafood to add depth to the flavor. Salt tightens the flavor profile by assisting taste receptors, balancing the overall composition alongside the vinegar rice’s acidity.
Furthermore, the pungent compound allyl isothiocyanate in wasabi is also perceived as an aroma in the nasal cavity, uniting spiciness and fragrance to further enhance the multidimensional taste experience.
The unsaturated fatty acids (EPA and DHA) contained in fish fat oxidize slightly to produce volatile components such as hexanal, which are perceived as the “aroma of the sea.” These aromas are released most naturally at room or body temperature. The acidity of the vinegared rice melts in the mouth and enhances the aroma, bringing out the maximum umami of the fish topping and creating a scientifically sound harmony of flavors.
The artisan’s skill exists to further enhance this chemical interaction. They perform preparatory steps tailored to the freshness and condition of each topping, removing excess moisture and off-odor to highlight the ingredient’s inherent umami. Cutting techniques are also meticulously chosen for each topping—such as sogigiri (angled slicing), hikkikiri (pulling cut), or hirazukuri (flat slicing)—considering the fish’s fiber and fat distribution to adjust texture and aroma release.
The temperature and firmness of the shari (vinegared rice) are precisely calculated to ensure the fish’s fat melts perfectly in the mouth, creating the moment where aroma and umami unite. Wasabi is meticulously adjusted in quantity and placement for each piece to accentuate its fragrance and balance the mouthfeel. The combination of all these elements creates a single, complete taste experience in the mouth.
And cultural background underpins this harmony. This refers to a culinary philosophy that highlights the inherent appeal of ingredients by subtracting unnecessary elements rather than adding excessive flavors or aromas. For example, instead of drenching fatty white fish in strong sauce, it is designed so that the fish’s natural umami and aroma can be felt in a single bite, simply seasoned with the spiciness of wasabi and the saltiness of soy sauce. Whereas Western cuisine is often described as “additive cooking,” building flavor through layers of seasonings and sauces, sushi emphasizes the natural flavors of ingredients through subtraction.
The umami of the fish, the flavor of its fat, the acidity of the rice, and the aroma of the wasabi are calculated to harmonize naturally. In the early Edo period, wasabi was expensive and not something commoners could use daily. However, during the late Edo period, as “hayazushi” (sushi using vinegared rice to shorten fermentation time) became popular at street stalls, artisans noticed that wasabi’s spiciness and aroma enhanced the flavor of raw fish. They gradually began incorporating it into sushi. Thus, artisans continued refining their craft to complete each piece with minimal adjustments while respecting the individuality of the ingredients, establishing the philosophy of harmonious flavors in sushi.
Thus, sushi is perfectly complete with just soy sauce and wasabi. The fusion of scientific umami synergy, the artisan’s meticulous technique, and the cultural backdrop of the subtractive aesthetic allows one to experience the depth of flavor and the three-dimensionality of aroma in a single bite. Soy sauce and wasabi are not mere seasonings; they embody the essence of sushi.
The safety of sushi in Japan is not solely dependent on the meticulous daily hygiene practices of sushi chefs.
― Raw gastronomy supported by science and culture ―
Japanese sushi is recognized worldwide as “safe to eat raw.” In many countries, consuming raw fish carries risks. Bacteria, parasites, and inadequate temperature control can lead to food poisoning. However, a culture where sushi and sashimi can be enjoyed with confidence has been built over a long history in Japan. This is no accident; it is the result of scientific management and laws combined with artisans’ skills and cultural awareness. Let’s take a closer look.
Thorough freshness management via cold chain
When discussing the safety of Japanese sushi, the most crucial element is the low-temperature management system known as the “cold chain.” This refers to the mechanism that maintains a constant temperature throughout the entire process, from the fish being caught in the sea to its arrival at the sushi counter. First, the caught fish is immediately chilled with ice onboard the vessel and kept at a low temperature around 0°C. This minimizes bacterial growth and deterioration of freshness. Then, the fish is delivered by refrigerated trucks from the fishing port to the fish market.
Upon arrival at the fish market, the fish is kept at low temperatures in the auction halls and warehouses, maintaining its freshness until purchased by the chefs. Transportation from the market to the restaurants also uses dedicated refrigerated trucks or containers to maintain a constant temperature. At the restaurants, further management occurs in the sushi display cases and refrigerators, ensuring the quality of the fish remains at its absolute best.
Furthermore, fish like salmon, which carry a risk of parasites, undergo proper freezing during distribution, ensuring they are safe for raw consumption. This rigorous temperature control from catch to plate is what makes Japanese sushi a unique “safe raw food” unmatched anywhere else in the world.
Japan’s globally high food safety standards
One reason Japanese sushi is globally safe is its strict food safety standards based on laws and systems. Japan’s Food Sanitation Act thoroughly regulates the hygiene management of raw fish for consumption and cooking utensils. Furthermore, the HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) system is implemented in all food service establishments, analyzing hazards and clearly defining control points at each stage from fish reception and refrigerated storage to cooking and serving. For example, meticulous hygiene management is routinely practiced, covering details such as temperature control of sushi toppings, parasite risk management, maintaining hand cleanliness, and disinfecting knives and cutting boards.
Sushi restaurants also strictly adhere to these standards. Beyond simply complying with laws and regulations, hygiene awareness is thoroughly instilled during the training of their chefs. Maintaining hand cleanliness, disinfecting cooking utensils, and controlling the temperature of sushi toppings are daily routines across all sushi establishments.
Furthermore, regular on-site inspections are conducted by municipal health centers. These inspections verify temperature management records, kitchen cleanliness, and employee handwashing practices. Violations result in corrective guidance and, in some cases, suspension of operations. This combination of legal oversight and artisan traditions enables Japanese sushi restaurants to routinely achieve a level of hygiene management unparalleled anywhere else in the world.
According to the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Health and Medical Services Bureau, the number of food poisoning incidents in fiscal year 2025 was 114 cases (affecting 1,536 people). Compared to 76 cases (affecting 833 people) at general restaurants, sushi restaurants had only 8 cases (affecting 27 people), a very low number.
Sushi chefs’ rigorous sanitation practices
One of the most critical factors supporting the safety of Japanese sushi is the daily sanitation practices of sushi chefs. Chefs pay meticulous attention to sanitation, just as much as they do to their nigiri-making and knife skills.
Maintaining clean hands is the top priority. Chefs wash their hands between tasks and disinfect their fingertips with vinegar water. Cutting boards and knives are also wiped down and disinfected after each sushi. These practices prevent cross-contamination. Furthermore, during their apprenticeship, trainees are rigorously taught by their masters to visually inspect fish for anisakis parasites and remove them thoroughly.
Sushi toppings are always kept below 5°C (41°F) to minimize bacterial growth. Careful consideration is given to the chef’s workflow and tool placement. Areas for handling raw fish and cooked ingredients are separated, and dedicated tools are used to prevent cross-contamination.
Sushi chefs’ hygiene management is not merely a formality; it is a scientifically grounded “procedure for ensuring safety.” The chefs’ experience and skill are reflected in their daily hygiene practices, allowing us to enjoy raw sushi with confidence.
A culture that values freshness and eating food right away
One reason Japanese sushi is safe and delicious lies in its “freshness-first, eat-food-immediately culture.” This culinary tradition, passed down from the Edo period to the present day, is based on the premise of eating fish caught on the same day. At sushi restaurants, it is standard practice to prepare and serve fish purchased at the market that very day.
This culture maximizes the freshness of fish, rice, and seasonings while significantly reducing the risk of food poisoning.
Summary
It is the combination of tradition, science, the artisan’s skill, and a culture that values freshness that makes Japanese sushi so reliably safe to eat raw. The combination of a culture prioritizing freshness dating back to the Edo period, scientific temperature control and inspection, and artisans’ meticulous hygiene management achieves a level of safety unparalleled anywhere in the world.
At first glance, this might seem like a minor difference in etiquette, but it actually reflects Japanese food culture and the chefs’ careful attention to flavor. This can be explained from two perspectives: taste and culture.
First, let’s look at the taste aspect, which explains how wasabi enhances the flavor of sushi.
When eating nigiri sushi (edomae sushi) at a sushi restaurant, wasabi is not served separately. Instead, the chef incorporates the optimal amount into each piece, carefully matching it to the type of fish and its fat content. Wasabi’s aromatic compound, isothiocyanate, is released the moment it’s grated and quickly evaporates when exposed to air. Mixing it into soy sauce causes both its fragrance and spiciness to be lost. Therefore, mixing wasabi into soy sauce is unnecessary; savoring it as the chef intended, with its carefully calculated balance, is considered the most delicious way to eat it. That fleeting moment when the refreshing aroma rises, blending with the umami of the fish and the acidity of the vinegared rice, is the true essence of sushi.
On the other hand, for sashimi, the correct way to eat it is to place a small amount of wasabi directly on top of the sashimi and dip the underside into soy sauce. This allows the wasabi’s aroma to spread across the fish’s surface, while the saltiness and umami components of the soy sauce are added subtly, enhancing the ingredient’s flavor most effectively. Mixing wasabi into the soy sauce destroys this delicate way the aroma unfolds.
Another reason comes from culture: appreciating how the chef intends each piece to be eaten.
In Edomae sushi, the “amount of wasabi” is also part of the chef’s skill. They calculate the optimal flavor balance by adjusting the intensity of the spiciness based on the type of fish and its fat content.
Mixing it into the soy sauce would disrupt the flavor harmony intended by the artisan. This is akin to someone arbitrarily adding salt or pepper to a sauce finished by the chef in French cuisine. In French cuisine, the flavor perfected by the chef on the plate is considered the final form, and guests respect that.
Similarly with sushi, appreciating the flavor balance designed by the chef for each piece is the ultimate courtesy and the best way to fully enjoy its flavor.
Now you know why you shouldn’t mix wasabi into soy sauce and the cultural reasoning behind it. Understanding both the taste and the tradition allows you to appreciate the chef’s skill—and earn their respect.
“Kaiseki” is one of Japan’s representative traditional course meals. Each dish is meticulously prepared, using seasonal ingredients and presented with beautiful plating.
In fact, there are two types of “Kaiseki”. One is “懐石料理”, the other is “会席料理”. Although both share the same pronunciation in Japanese, their purpose and atmosphere are entirely different.
Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理) is a quiet, refined cuisine that developed as part of the tea ceremony. It is a light meal served to entertain guests, featuring subtle flavors. It values the natural flavors and seasonal beauty of ingredients.
On the other hand, Kaiseki cuisine (会席料理) is a lavish course meal served at banquets and celebrations. It features many dishes served in sequence, designed to be enjoyed for their visual beauty and festive atmosphere.
Both types of Kaiseki embody the Japanese spirit of hospitality and an aesthetic appreciation for the seasons. Experiencing Kaiseki is not merely eating a meal; it is experiencing Japanese culture itself.
Historical Background
Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理) and Kaiseki cuisine (会席料理) both originated from the spirit of hospitality, but their purposes and histories differ.
Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理) – Cuisine born from the tea ceremony
Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理) was refined and popularized in the 16th century by the tea master Sen no Rikyū (千利休). It is a light meal served before a tea ceremony to warm the body and settle the mind. The term “Kaiseki” originates from the idea of “holding a warm stone against one’s stomach to ease hunger.” The cuisine is simple, conveying quiet beauty through the natural flavor of the ingredients, the arrangement of each dish, and the harmony among the tableware.
Kaiseki cuisine (会席料理) – Cuisine developed from banquet culture
In contrast, Kaiseki cuisine (会席料理) developed from the banquet culture of samurai and aristocrats. It is a style designed for enjoying food and savoring sake at celebratory gatherings. It is more elaborate than Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理), featuring a greater number of dishes and a more luxurious appearance. It can be described as “social cuisine” that fosters social interaction.
Differences in Structure and Seasoning
Purpose of Serving
Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理) is a meal served before a tea ceremony to prepare the mind. Kaiseki cuisine (会席料理) is a meal enjoyed with others at banquets or celebratory occasions.
Course Structure
Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理) is fundamentally based on “one soup, three dishes” (一汁三菜). It typically consists of rice, soup, and three side dishes. In a typical Cha-Kaiseki (Tea Ceremony Kaiseki) menu, dishes are served in a precise and ceremonial order — beginning with oshiki (折敷), followed by wanmono (椀盛), grilled dishes (yakimono), simmered or vinegared dishes (shiizakana / 強肴), suimono (clear soup / 吸い物), hassun (八寸), yutō and kōnomono (湯桶・香の物), and finally omogashi and koicha (主菓子・濃茶).
Kaiseki cuisine (会席料理) is a more elaborate style, featuring many dishes served in sequence from appetizers to dessert. Kaiseki Ryori (会席料理) is a course meal enjoyed in a banquet style. In a typical menu, dishes are served in a specific sequence — starting with appetizers (zensai), followed by clear soup (suimono), sashimi, grilled dishes (yakimono), simmered dishes (nimono), deep-fried dishes (agemono), steamed dishes (mushimono), and vinegared dishes (sunomono). The meal concludes with rice and red miso soup (tomewan), pickles (kou no mono), and seasonal fruits (mizugashi). Some restaurants also include an aperitif (shokuzen-shu) to begin the dining experience.
Seasoning
Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理) features delicate, subtly seasoned dishes that highlight the natural flavors of the ingredients. Kaiseki cuisine (会席料理), on the other hand, features more diverse and vibrant flavors, incorporating grilled, fried, and simmered dishes.
Tableware and Presentation
Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理) tableware emphasizes seasonal sensibility and understated beauty. By contrast, Kaiseki cuisine (会席料理) uses colorful and ornate tableware, creating a visually pleasing presentation.
Differences in Serving Style
Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理) – A quiet, meticulous flow
Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理) follows the ritual flow of the tea ceremony, with dishes served one at a time to each guest. The host observes the guest’s pace and serves each dish with care. The spirit of “consideration” and “harmony” is felt within the quiet, serene atmosphere.
Kaiseki cuisine (会席料理) – Lively and Festive
Kaiseki cuisine (会席料理) is served at banquets and celebrations, often with dishes presented simultaneously, creating a lively atmosphere. It is a bright, social dining style enjoyed with conversation and sake.
Where can you eat it?
Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理) and Kaiseki cuisine (会席料理) are dishes meant to be savored in special places and experiences.
Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理) can be enjoyed in tea houses where you can experience a traditional tea ceremony, or in quiet temple lodgings (shukubō). Through the care infused into each dish, you can experience Japan’s “beauty of stillness.”
Kaiseki cuisine (会席料理) is typically enjoyed at Onsen Ryokan (hot-spring inns) or traditional ryōtei restaurants. It features multi-course meals using seasonal ingredients, beautifully presented, making it perfect for celebratory occasions or special travel dining.
Both offer a precious opportunity to experience Japan’s “hospitality.” Whether you choose the quiet. Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理) or the elegant Kaiseki cuisine (会席料理) – whichever you select, the spirit of Japan lives within it.
Modern Differences and Misconceptions
Overseas, the term “Kaiseki” is often introduced as “high-end Japanese cuisine” or “special course meals,” and the distinction between Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理) and Kaiseki cuisine (会席料理) may not be widely known. This frequently leads to the misconception that “Kaiseki = luxurious Japanese food.”
The original Kaiseki represents the spirit of hospitality and harmony with nature. It’s important to appreciate not only the flavors and presentation, but also the Japanese sensibility expressed through the tableware, pacing, and quiet intervals between courses.
To dispel this misunderstanding, one should explain Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理) as “a light meal before a tea ceremony” and Kaiseki cuisine (会席料理) as “a formal multi-course meal for celebrations,” conveying the underlying cultural differences. When savoring Kaiseki, pay attention to the ingredients, the presentation, and the expression of the season. Within that lies the richness of the Japanese spirit.
The Diverse World of Kaiseki and the Difficulty in Understanding It
Kaiseki cuisine (懐石料理) and Kaiseki cuisine (会席料理) are distinct culinary styles with different purposes and atmospheres, yet even among Japanese people, the distinction between them is often unclear.
Many people use the terms interchangeably, and even on menus at traditional restaurants and inns, the two terms are often used interchangeably.
Furthermore, the composition and seasoning of dishes differ between the Kansai and Kanto regions, and the philosophy and aesthetic of presentation also vary among schools like Kyoto cuisine, Edo cuisine, and shojin ryori (Buddhist vegetarian cuisine).
In other words, even when simply referred to as “Kaiseki,” its content varies greatly depending on region, tradition, and the chef’s philosophy.
As a result, it can be difficult for non-Japanese visitors to grasp the distinction between the two forms of Kaiseki.
In fact, many travelers refer to the course meals served at hot spring inns or high-end Japanese restaurants as “Kaiseki,” but whether these meals possess elements of Kaiseki (懐石) or follow the format of Kaiseki (会席) varies by establishment.
Yet, this very ambiguity is part of what makes Japanese cuisine so intriguing. Kaiseki is not a fixed mold but a “living culture” that evolves with the seasons, regions, and people involved. Both share a common spirit rooted in the “heart of hospitality” and “harmony with nature.”
When visiting Japan, experience the unique charm of Kaiseki cuisine—whether it’s the quiet, monastic setting of a temple lodging or the elegant atmosphere of a hot spring inn.
You’ll surely sense the profound depth of the Japanese spirit in each and every dish.
When sauce is about to drip, do you catch it by cupping your hand like a plate with the hand opposite your chopsticks? This is commonly called “Tezara (手皿: Te means hand and zara means plate).” It often appears on Japanese TV during meal scenes.
While it might seem elegant, it’s actually considered bad manners in Japanese dining etiquette, so it’s best to remember this. You should be especially careful during important occasions. The basic etiquette for Japanese cuisine is to hold the bowl or dish in your hand while eating, so the correct way is to use the sauce in a small side dish, not your hand.
However, there are times when small side dishes aren’t provided, like when eating out or at home. In those cases, the basic Japanese approach is to hold the bowl itself close to your mouth for dishes with sauce. Alternatively, you can use techniques like lightly cutting the sauce with the tips of your chopsticks before bringing it to your mouth to eat neatly without using your hands.
Why is using your hand as a plate considered bad manners? If sauce drips onto your hand and stains it, you’ll need to wipe your hands with an oshibori (wet towel), creating extra laundry. Oshibori are meant for wiping hands before eating. If they get stained with food sauce, they may require stain removal, causing trouble for the restaurant.
Furthermore, while it’s common, seeing someone use their palm as a plate and then bring the food to their mouth can feel somewhat unhygienic and vulgar, even if the person themselves doesn’t mind. Depending on the situation, it’s considered bad manners during a proper meal.
In Japan, holding bowls and small dishes is considered polite.
In Japanese dining culture, holding bowls and small dishes is considered polite. Proper etiquette dictates lifting bowls and soup bowls to your mouth, while flat or large dishes should not be lifted—specific manners exist for each type of vessel. Using a serving dish instead of tezara is rooted in these uniquely Japanese dining customs.
Of course, during casual meals at home or with friends, you might unconsciously use your hand as a plate. While it often isn’t a major issue in daily life, it’s especially important to refrain from doing so at formal occasions, kaiseki dinners, or when dining with seniors. Being mindful of etiquette according to the situation will make your dining manners appear more refined.
It’s a gesture that anyone can easily do, but it’s best to avoid it at formal occasions. It may even look as if you’re drawing attention to a spill, so using a side plate or small dish is always the better choice.
Sashimi is a standard menu item at whale specialty restaurants.
It has been six years since Japan withdrew from the International Whaling Commission (IWC) and resumed commercial whaling. Many consumers had hoped that whale meat would become cheaper and appear on dinner tables. This is because whale meat is a nutritious and versatile ingredient that can be used in a variety of dishes. However, the amount of whale meat available in circulation has decreased compared to the era of research whaling. What exactly were the Japanese government and the whaling industry trying to protect?
On the other hand, the three countries strongly pushing for a “whale hunting ban” in Japan are the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. Why is Japan not allowed to engage in commercial whaling when Iceland and Norway are permitted to do so? Such inconsistencies also exist.
In fact, very few Japanese people actually want to eat whale meat. According to a survey by Greenpeace, 95% of Japanese people do not particularly want to eat whale meat. It is said that the average annual consumption of whale meat per person in Japan is now 40 grams. It was quite a challenge to find images of whale sushi in our saved files.
In other words, whales may now be used as political and economic tools, transcending issues such as human food and the environment.
To put it bluntly, it may be the fault of a few members of parliament elected from constituencies with many whaling-related interests and hundreds of bureaucrats who do not want to lose their budgets.
This article is simply to show that whale sushi exists as part of Japanese food culture. Although rare today, whale occasionally appears as sushi neta (topping). So, what kinds of whale are actually used for sushi? Let’s take a closer look.
Minke whales in the northern hemisphere are about 8 meters long. Seen from above, their heads are pointed at the tip. There is a white patch on the upper center of the pectoral fins. The dorsal fin, about 30 cm high, is located toward the rear of the body and is often clearly sickle-shaped. The back is black, the sides are gray with a blurred pattern, and the lower jaw and abdomen are white.
It generally feeds on krill, small squid, and fish. It filters its food through bristle-like baleen plates, made of keratin. The Japanese name for the minke whale is higekujira, which means bearded whale.
Description: A relatively small baleen whale, measuring about 7–10 meters in length.
Use: The most commonly caught species in Japan’s commercial whaling, widely utilized for sushi toppings, sashimi, and bacon-style preparations.
Flavor: The red meat is tender with little odor, making it one of the more approachable types of whale meat.
Bryde’s Whale is a close relative of the Sei whale. It was named “Nitarikujira” (meaning “similar whale”) because it resembles the Sei whale. It grows to a maximum length of about 15 meters and is slightly smaller than the Sei whale.
Description: A medium-sized baleen whale, usually 12–15 meters long, larger than the minke whale.
Use: Its red meat is served as sushi or sashimi, while fatty cuts and tail meat are often cooked.
Flavor: The red meat has a richer taste with a pronounced umami and iron-like character.
3. Sei Whale (Balaenoptera borealis Lesson, 1828)
Sei whales are baleen whales belonging to the family Balaenopteridae. They migrate across the open ocean in schools of sardines, feeding on them, which is how they got their name.
Two subspecies are recognized: the northern hemisphere subspecies (B. b. borealis) and the southern hemisphere subspecies (B. b. schlegelii). They are distributed in the southern Indian Ocean, the North Atlantic and South Atlantic, and the North Pacific and South Pacific.
Its body is slender and spindle-shaped, with a sickle-shaped dorsal fin. The dorsal color is dark blue, the ventral color is light blue, and there are blurred patterns in between. The head is V-shaped, enabling it to swim at high speeds. The maximum body length is approximately 18 meters.
Description: A baleen whale that grows 12–18 meters long. In the past, it was more frequently caught, but today only limited numbers are harvested.
Use: The lean red meat is used for sushi or sashimi, while fattier portions are processed into bacon or fried dishes.
Flavor: The meat is tender and relatively mild, with a clean, elegant taste.
Sperm whales are distributed worldwide from the Arctic to the Antarctic, with the largest populations found in deep ocean waters. Male sperm whales grow to a length of 15 to 20 meters and weigh between 40 and 60 tons. Their body color is blackish gray, but it becomes whiter with age. In particular, the head tends to become whiter. The dorsal fin is mountain-shaped, with several ridges extending from the rear toward the tail fin. The surface of the body, except for the head, is rough and uneven.
Description: A toothed whale and one of the largest whale species, reaching 15–20 meters or more in length.
Use: Rarely used as sushi. Instead, its distinctive fatty tissue is made into “toothed whale bacon” or other processed foods.
Flavor: The fat has a unique aroma and a very rich, heavy taste.
Types of whale meat
Saezuri
Saezuri is very fatty, and the taste and texture differ between the root and tip of the tongue. It has a deep umami flavor and is used in simmered dishes and oden. It is one of the most popular delicacies of whale meat.
Onomi
The back section from the dorsal fin to the tail, with fat marbled like snowflakes (shimofuri). Considered the most delicious part of whale meat, it is also known as whale Otoro.
Unesu
The white, accordion-shaped part running vertically from the lower jaw to the navel is called Une, and the red inner part is called Sunoko. These two parts together form Unesu. It has a soft, gelatinous texture and is one of the most popular whale meat cuts, cherished for generations.
Bacon
Bacon is a processed food made by salting and smoking the part called Unesu.
Among Japan’s rich tapestry of traditional foods, few dishes capture the nation’s culinary spirit quite like Okonomiyaki. Sometimes described as a “Japanese savory pancake,” Okonomiyaki is a comfort food rooted in local culture, creativity, and postwar resilience. Its name, meaning “cooked as you like,” reflects the dish’s defining characteristic—versatility. Whether served Kansai-style with ingredients mixed into a fluffy batter, or Hiroshima-style in layered form with noodles and cabbage, Okonomiyaki has earned its place as a favorite across Japan and beyond.
This guide takes you on a journey through the origins of Okonomiyaki, its regional variations, what makes it so delicious, the diverse range of ingredients it welcomes, and how to prepare it yourself. Whether you’re a curious traveler, a passionate foodie, or someone seeking to recreate a taste of Japan at home, this deep dive into Okonomiyaki offers the perfect starting point.
1. The History and Evolution of Okonomiyaki
An Unrecorded Beginning
Surprisingly, the term “okonomiyaki” has only come into common use in recent years. In fact, there are still some dictionaries that do not include it. There are no clear historical records identifying its origin, the person who coined the term, or exactly when it was first made. However, it is certain that foods resembling today’s okonomiyaki existed in various regions of Japan from long ago.
Roots: “Funo-yaki” in the Edo Period
One commonly cited predecessor of okonomiyaki is funo-yaki, which dates back to the Edo period. It was even used by tea master Sen no Rikyū as a tea sweet. Made by mixing coarsely ground wheat flour with water and grilling it on a hot plate, its appearance was said to resemble modern crepes. During the mid-Edo period, funo-yaki (麩の焼) became commercialized under the name sukesō-yaki (助惣焼き), and it was enjoyed as a sweet filled with miso or sweet bean paste. It later evolved into kintsuba, a traditional Japanese confection.
However, it is important to note that funo-yaki was still a confection, and followed a different lineage from okonomiyaki, which is a savory, grilled main dish.
Regional Genealogies: Tokyo, Osaka, and Hiroshima
Tokyo Lineage: Moji-yaki → Monjayaki → Dondon-yaki → Okonomiyaki
In Tokyo, the roots can be traced back to moji-yaki (文字焼き) in the late Edo period. During the Meiji era, monjayaki (もんじゃ焼き) emerged—a dish where flour mixed with water and ingredients was grilled on a hot plate. It became popular among children, who often made it themselves at candy shops.
In the early Showa period, a more filling version called dondon-yaki (どんどん焼) appeared at food stalls. This version involved placing ingredients between layers of batter, grilling both sides, and wrapping it in newspaper. It resembled the layered style now seen in Hiroshima-style okonomiyaki. After WWII, dondon-yaki transitioned from a street snack to a dish eaten inside restaurants, and eventually came to be known as okonomiyaki.
Osaka Lineage: Issen Yoshoku → Okonomiyaki
In Osaka, a light snack called issen yoshoku (一銭洋食) gained popularity among the general public in the early Showa era. This simple “mixed-grill” style dish consisted of flour batter with cabbage and pickled ginger, grilled and topped with Worcestershire sauce. It was often sold at candy shops or stalls, especially to children.
After the war, in response to food shortages, ingredients like meat, eggs, and seafood were added to make the dish more substantial. The term okonomiyaki became established, referring to the customizable nature of the dish, and it gradually evolved into a home-cooked meal and restaurant specialty.
In Hiroshima, the origin was also issen yoshoku (一銭洋食). Before and after the war, vendors and candy shops began preparing thin pancakes made from flour batter, then layering on cabbage, bean sprouts, tempura crumbs, and more before grilling. Eventually, stir-fried noodles were added inside, and the dish came to be known as niku-tama-soba (meat, egg, and noodles).
From the 1950s onward, a standardized method emerged where an egg was added to complete the dish. This became the foundation of modern Hiroshima-style okonomiyaki (広島風お好み焼き). A defining feature is the layered grilling technique, where ingredients are stacked rather than mixed. This method requires skilled use of long metal spatulas and is often considered a culinary art form locally.
In Hiroshima, unlike other regions, it is more common to eat okonomiyaki at specialty restaurants rather than make it at home, and the dish has become a major tourist attraction.
Modernization and Nationwide Spread
After World War II, due to rice shortages, wheat flour supplied by the U.S. became a valuable substitute staple. Okonomiyaki, which made efficient use of flour, spread rapidly across Japan. Each region developed its own unique style, and the dish became a beloved home-cooked meal throughout the country.
In the 1970s and 80s, the widespread use of household electric griddles made okonomiyaki popular as a fun, family-style meal prepared and eaten together at the table. The distinctions between Kansai-style (mixed) and Hiroshima-style (layered) okonomiyaki also became widely recognized.
Contemporary Okonomiyaki: Diversity and Global Reach
Since the beginning of the 21st century, okonomiyaki has undergone further diversification. Gourmet versions featuring ingredients like beef tendon, cheese, and spicy cod roe (mentaiko) have emerged, as have regional variants like negiyaki and modern-yaki. Additionally, menus now increasingly cater to dietary restrictions, including vegan and gluten-free options, making the dish more accessible to health-conscious and religious diners alike.
Experiential okonomiyaki restaurants catering to foreign tourists have also grown in number, with the interactive, grill-it-yourself nature of the dish now considered a cultural attraction. Moreover, overseas establishments dedicated to OKONOMIYAKI are on the rise, further establishing it as a recognized part of Japanese cuisine worldwide.
2. Types of Okonomiyaki
There are two major regional styles of Okonomiyaki in Japan, each with its own unique approach and flavor profile: Kansai-style (also known as Osaka-style) and Hiroshima-style.
2-1 Kansai-style Okonomiyaki (関西風お好み焼)
The appearance of Kansai-style Okonomiyaki
Kansai-style Okonomiyaki is perhaps the most well-known throughout Japan. In this style, the ingredients—including flour, cabbage, eggs, pork, seafood, and other desired additions—are mixed together into a batter, much like preparing a savory pancake. This mixture is then cooked on a hot griddle until both sides are golden brown and the center is soft and flavorful. The result is a fluffy, cohesive dish that’s typically topped with Okonomi sauce, mayonnaise, dried bonito flakes, and aonori (seaweed flakes). Regional variations of Kansai-style include “modan-yaki,” which adds a layer of noodles, and “negi-yaki,” which substitutes green onions for cabbage and is often enjoyed with soy sauce instead of the usual sweet-savory sauce.
2-2 Hiroshima-style Okonomiyaki (広島風お好み焼き)
The appearance of hiroshima style okonomiyaki
Hiroshima-style Okonomiyaki, on the other hand, takes a more layered approach. Rather than mixing the ingredients together, each component is stacked in a specific order: a thin crepe-like batter is laid down first, followed by a generous helping of finely shredded cabbage, bean sprouts, pork slices, and stir-fried noodles, often yakisoba. A fried egg is typically added on top before the dish is flipped and finished on the griddle. The final product is heartier and taller than its Kansai counterpart, offering a more complex texture in each bite.
Beyond these two main styles, there are countless local variations that reflect regional tastes and available ingredients. For example, in Fuchu, ground pork is used instead of pork belly, resulting in a crispier texture. In Shobara, rice replaces noodles, and the dish is eaten with ponzu rather than sauce. In Mihara, chicken giblets are a featured ingredient, and in other areas, versions include local delicacies such as squid tempura, sake lees, or spicy noodles. Each variation is a testament to the dish’s adaptability and deep roots in local food culture.
2-3 Onomichiyaki (尾道焼き)
It is made by layering bonito flakes, cabbage, Chinese noodles, squid tempura, salt and pepper-fried gizzard, beef fat, red ginger, pork, and other ingredients, then baking them. The sauce is less sweet than Hiroshima-style okonomiyaki and tends to be less viscous.
2-4 Kakioko (カキオコ)
The appearance of Kakioko
It is made by mixing shredded cabbage with a creamy batter, spreading it on a hot griddle, and cooking it until it is golden brown. Fresh oysters are added and cooked slowly until they are done, resulting in a crispy exterior and a soft interior.
2-5 Mametendamayaki (豆天玉焼)
The appearance of Mametendamayaki
Starting with Tokushima ramen, followed by udon, and then okonomiyaki. In fact, Tokushima is a city that rivals Osaka in terms of flour-based cuisine. Okonomiyaki made by mixing sweetly simmered red kidney beans into the batter and then grilling it. This is a local specialty that has been enjoyed in Tokushima for centuries, known as “Mameten tama.” In addition to red kidney beans, the batter includes eggs and tempura made from Tokushima’s unique small shrimp. The chewy dough, the comforting sweetness of the red kidney beans, and the sweet-and-spicy okonomiyaki sauce create a delightful contrast of textures and flavors.
2-6 Monjayaki (月島もんじゃ)
The appearance of Monjayaki
Tukishima Monjayaki is often considered a type of okonomiyaki, but due to differences in how it is made and eaten, it can be considered a separate dish from okonomiyaki.The most notable feature is the large amount of water used to dissolve the flour, and the fact that seasonings such as sauce are mixed into the ingredients before cooking. In terms of eating style, it is characterized by cutting the dish into bite-sized pieces and pressing them onto a hot iron plate with a small spatula before cooking. This results in a crispy exterior and a fluffy interior, making it a popular dish enjoyed by many people.
3. What Makes Okonomiyaki Delicious
The appeal of Okonomiyaki lies in its unique harmony of textures, flavors, and the sensory experience it delivers, both in preparation and consumption. It’s not just food; it’s a cultural experience rooted in warmth, sharing, and creativity.
First and foremost, the texture contrast is one of Okonomiyaki’s defining features. The crispy, caramelized surface of the pancake—achieved by searing it on a hot teppan (iron griddle)—gives way to a soft, moist, and fluffy interior, often studded with tender cabbage, savory meat, and chewy bits like squid or noodles. This contrast of crisp and soft, light and rich, makes every bite exciting and satisfying.
Flavor-wise, Okonomiyaki is a celebration of umami, the deeply savory fifth taste so beloved in Japanese cuisine. The base ingredients like dashi-flavored batter, pork, and seafood already provide rich depth. When topped with Okonomi sauce—a sweet and tangy condiment similar to Worcestershire sauce but thicker and more complex—it creates a luscious glaze that balances sweetness, saltiness, and spice. Add to that a drizzle of creamy Japanese mayonnaise, the umami-packed flakes of katsuobushi (dried bonito), and the aromatic aonori seaweed powder, and you get layers of flavor that linger and evolve with each bite.
Another source of delight is the interactive nature of the dish. In many restaurants, especially in Osaka or Hiroshima, customers cook the dish themselves on built-in griddles at their table. This communal aspect of flipping, topping, and sharing Okonomiyaki turns the meal into a fun, collaborative event—perfect for family gatherings, friendly get-togethers, or casual dates. Watching bonito flakes dance from the heat or hearing the sizzle of the batter hitting the griddle is an experience that engages all five senses.
Moreover, the versatility of the dish means it can be endlessly adapted. Whether you prefer it meaty and hearty, light and vegetarian, spicy, cheesy, or even with unconventional toppings like pesto or kimchi, Okonomiyaki welcomes your preferences. It’s comfort food that still allows for personal expression.
Finally, there’s an element of nostalgia for many Japanese people. For those who grew up eating Okonomiyaki at home or on festival days, its flavors are deeply connected with family, childhood, and tradition. For travelers and food lovers from abroad, it offers a uniquely satisfying entry point into Japanese culinary culture—familiar in form, yet completely original in taste.
In short, what makes Okonomiyaki delicious isn’t just the ingredients, but the way they come together to create a multi-sensory, customizable, and deeply comforting experience.
4. Ingredients in Okonomiyaki
Key ingredients typically include:
Flour: Energy-rich and combined with eggs to make the batter.
Cabbage: Provides sweetness, crunch, and Vitamin C.
Pork: Supplies protein and essential amino acids.
Eggs: Nutrient-dense and protein-rich.
Tempura scraps (tenkasu): Add texture and umami.
Green onions, bean sprouts, fish flakes: Offer nutritional and flavor boosts.
Noodles (Hiroshima style only): Yakisoba or udon.
Red pickled ginger: Adds tang and supports digestion.
Okonomi sauce: Sweet-savory and thicker than Worcestershire sauce.
Mayonnaise: Adds creaminess; common in Kansai style.
5. How to Make Okonomiyaki
Kansai-Style (Mixed Style):
① Create a batter by mixing flour, dashi (stock), and eggs.
② Add shredded cabbage, meat or seafood, and other desired ingredients.
③ Pour onto a hot greased pan or griddle and shape it into a circle.
④ Grill both sides until golden and cooked through.
⑤ Top with sauce, mayonnaise, seaweed, and bonito flakes.
Hiroshima-Style (Layered Style):
① Spread a thin crepe-like batter on the griddle.
② Layer with shredded cabbage, bean sprouts, pork, and yakisoba.
③ Place another crepe and crack an egg on top.
④ Flip the entire stack to cook evenly.
⑤ Finish with sauce, aonori, and (optionally) mayonnaise.
Access: Subway Sen-Nichimae Line, Tsuruhashi Station, 1-minute walk
Kintetsu Osaka Line, Tsuruhashi Station, 1-minute walk
Phone Number: +81-6-6771-7938
Closed: Only on New Year’s Day
Business Hours:
【Mon-Fri】11:30 AM – 9:30 PM
【Sat, Sun, Holidays】11:00 AM – 10:00 PM
Budget: [Lunch] 1,000–2,000 yen [Dinner] 2,000–3,000 yen
Conclusion:
Okonomiyaki is more than just a meal—it’s a reflection of Japan’s regional diversity, cultural resilience, and culinary creativity. From its ancient roots and wartime reinvention to its evolution into a modern-day comfort food, Okonomiyaki continues to bring people together around the sizzling warmth of the teppan grill. Whether in the mixed Kansai style or the layered Hiroshima style, the dish offers an endless variety of ingredients, textures, and flavors, all tailored to personal preference—true to its name, “as you like it.” Its balance of crispness and softness, umami-rich toppings, and customizable nature make it a dish that resonates across generations and cultures. As you explore or prepare Okonomiyaki, you’re not just enjoying a delicious Japanese classic—you’re taking part in a shared tradition built on ingenuity, community, and joy.
Namero (なめろう) is a traditional local dish from the coastal areas of the Bōsō Peninsula in Chiba Prefecture, which faces the Pacific Ocean.
This region has long been blessed with an abundance of fresh seafood, especially horse mackerel (aji), available year-round.
Originating as a fisherman’s meal, namero was devised to be easily prepared on the unsteady decks of fishing boats, making the most of freshly caught fish.
Main Ingredients and Preparation
The basic recipe involves finely chopping horse mackerel together with miso, green onions, ginger, and sometimes shiso leaves,
then mincing everything together until it becomes sticky and paste-like.
While horse mackerel is commonly used, other blue-backed fish such as sardines, pacific saury, flying fish, yellowtail, and even squid or bonito
are also popular depending on the season and locality.
The use of miso instead of soy sauce has a practical origin—it’s less likely to spill on a rocking boat.
The miso also helps neutralize the strong aroma of oily fish, enhancing only their natural umami flavors.
It is said the name “namero” comes from the phrase “so delicious you’ll want to lick the plate clean.”
Another theory is that the sticky texture makes it hard to scrape off the plate, so you’d have to “lick” it off to finish it.
Misconceptions and Variations
Namero is sometimes confused with “tataki (タタキ),” another chopped fish dish, but they are quite different.
Tataki is usually lightly chopped and often uses soy sauce and vinegar, whereas namero is more thoroughly minced and flavored with miso,
creating a smoother and more cohesive texture.
Over time, regional variations and creative adaptations of namero have emerged.
One notable example is sanga-yaki (山家焼き), a grilled version of namero.
Legend has it that fishermen used to pack leftover namero into abalone shells and grill it in mountain huts while working inland—hence the name “sanga,” meaning “mountain house.”
Another beloved version is “mago-cha (まご茶)” (literally, ‘grandchild tea’), a rustic ochazuke-style dish where namero is placed on hot rice and doused with warm dashi broth.
The name has two possible origins: one being that the dish could be eaten quickly without hesitation (“mago-mago” meaning to fumble),
and the other being that it’s so tasty you’d want to share it with your grandchildren.
The addition of dashi slightly cooks the fish, offering a delightful change in texture and flavor.
Conclusion
Namero is a dish that truly captures the culinary heritage of coastal Chiba, transforming simple, fresh fish into a flavorful and nutritious meal.
With its wide adaptability, regional roots, and deep umami taste, it continues to charm both locals and visitors alike.
Today, it is served as a tsumami (appetizer) in izakayas and sushi restaurants.
Whether enjoyed raw, grilled, or as a comforting bowl of ochazuke, namero remains a timeless symbol of Japan’s rich seafood culture.
Takoyaki is a beloved street food from Osaka, made by grilling a savory wheat flour batter filled with diced octopus. In Japanese, “tako” means octopus and “yaki” refers to grilling or cooking over heat.
Let’s dive deeper into this iconic dish and discover what makes takoyaki so special.
The History of Takoyaki
The Birth of Tamagoyaki (Akashi-yaki)
In Akashi City, Hyogo Prefecture, takoyaki is known as “tamagoyaki” or “Akashi-yaki.” The most widely accepted theory regarding its origin links it to the invention of Akashi-dama (Akashi balls).
Akashi-dama were ornamental items invented by Edo-ya Iwakichi, a tortoiseshell craftsman, during the late Edo period. These decorative beads were used as accessories or as weights for hanging scrolls and were designed to resemble expensive coral.
The inspiration for Akashi-dama is said to have come from an incident in Iwakichi’s life. One day, after visiting a friend’s home, he was carrying an egg as a gift in the sleeve of his kimono. Unfortunately, the egg broke, and the egg white solidified into a hard white mass. At the time, adhesives were not readily available, so Iwakichi noticed the adhesive properties of the egg white and was inspired to use it in the creation of Akashi-dama.
The production of Akashi-dama involved wrapping small lead balls in rice flour, attaching thinly sliced cow’s hooves (dyed red) to them, and using egg white as an adhesive. The balls were then shaped into spheres using a brass mold with round indentations.
However, the process consistently left behind unused egg yolks. Since eggs were considered expensive and valuable at the time, these yolks could not be wasted. People began cooking and eating the leftover yolks.
Eventually, with the invention of celluloid, demand for Akashi-dama declined, and the craftsmen lost their source of income. To make a living, some of them began operating street stalls. Wheat starch, a cheap byproduct of gluten extraction, and octopus, which was inexpensive and abundant, became key ingredients. Using these, they created a new dish called tamagoyaki, which featured small pieces of octopus cooked in an omelet-like batter. The brass mold previously used to make Akashi-dama was repurposed for cooking the dish, and it began to be served at food stalls.
This is how the dish tamagoyaki—the predecessor of today’s takoyaki—was born.
The Birth of Takoyaki
The takoyaki we know today was created in 1935 by Endo Ryukichi, the founder of Aizuya in Osaka. Originally from Aizu in Fukushima Prefecture, Endo began selling a dish called radio-yaki from a street stall in Osaka in 1933.
Radio-yaki resembled modern takoyaki in that it was made by pouring batter into round molds on an iron griddle. However, instead of octopus, it used beef tendon and konjac. Also known as niku-yaki (“grilled meat”), the dish was named radio-yaki after the radio—an exciting and popular new technology at the time—and quickly gained popularity.
One day, a customer who tried radio-yaki mentioned a dish in Akashi that used octopus and eggs, also referred to as takoyaki. Inspired by this, Endo substituted the beef tendon and konjac with octopus. At the time, octopus heads were inexpensive and readily available, so he used them in the new version of the dish. It proved to be a big hit and soon became known as takoyaki.
This marked the birth of the original takoyaki.
Note: From 1974 to 2012, the annual Madako (octopus) catch in Akashi remained between 2,000 and 3,000 tons. However, poor catches have continued in recent years, with the total dropping to just 231 tons in 2024. In addition, the prices of key takoyaki ingredients have skyrocketed, making it no longer the affordable street snack that children could easily buy with their allowance.
The Evolution of Takoyaki
When people hear the word takoyaki, many likely picture round balls topped with a generous amount of sauce, green onions, and bonito flakes. However, when takoyaki first originated in Osaka, it was traditionally eaten without any toppings. This was because the batter itself was already well seasoned. Each shop had its own unique recipe, blending flour with dashi, soy sauce, sake, salt, and other ingredients—creating a flavorful dish even without additional toppings.
Today, serving takoyaki with sauce has become the standard, and it’s not uncommon to find variations topped with ponzu or mayonnaise. Still, in Osaka—the birthplace of takoyaki—some shops remain faithful to the original style, offering takoyaki without any toppings. Over time, through experimentation and innovation, each shop has developed its own flavor and approach, allowing takoyaki to continue evolving.
Interestingly, the sauce now considered essential to takoyaki also has its own unique history. Sauce was introduced to Japan from England along with Western cuisine at the end of the Edo period. Initially, it resembled a thin Worcestershire-style sauce, but in the latter half of the Meiji era, domestic production began, and the recipe was adjusted to suit Japanese tastes. Thicker sauces were eventually created to complement a range of dishes, and in the late 1940s, the idea of “takoyaki with sauce” was born in Osaka.
Finally, in 1963, a sauce specifically formulated for takoyaki was developed and released, spreading nationwide alongside the rise of street food culture. Today, while the appearance of takoyaki has remained largely unchanged, its flavor and how it’s enjoyed have undoubtedly continued to evolve.
What Makes Takoyaki So Delicious?
When you take a bite of freshly made takoyaki, you’re met with a crispy, fragrant exterior, a melt-in-your-mouth soft center, and the satisfying chew of octopus. This unique combination of textures is what makes takoyaki so irresistible.
Although it may look simple, takoyaki is actually a carefully crafted dish that requires skill and attention to detail.
Achieving that crisp outer layer depends on properly shaping the balls and thoroughly cooking them on a hot griddle to evaporate excess moisture. The creamy interior is all about the batter’s water content—more moisture leads to a softer, silkier texture. Adding dashi broth or milk not only reduces the floury taste but also enhances the flavor. In particular, a small amount of milk makes the texture even smoother and richer.
At home, a common ratio is 1 part flour to 3 parts water, but professional takoyaki shops often use 4 parts water or more to create an even creamier center. However, using more water requires greater skill to cook the takoyaki properly without it falling apart.
The oil used in cooking also plays a major role in the final taste. Some shops use lard for added richness, while others blend different oils for depth of flavor. In the Kansai region—especially in Osaka and Kobe, where takoyaki originated—high-quality rapeseed oil has been produced for generations. In fact, many of the earliest takoyaki shops used rapeseed oil, and its aroma continues to enhance the flavor of takoyaki today.
Taste, texture, and aroma all work together to make takoyaki far more than just a flour-based snack—it’s a rich and beloved part of Japanese food culture.
The Main and Supporting Ingredients of Takoyaki
The undisputed star of takoyaki is, of course, octopus. Its plump, pleasantly chewy texture is something everyone eagerly anticipates. While octopus is sometimes avoided in Western countries—where it’s even nicknamed “devil fish”—it has long been treasured as a seafood delicacy across the Pacific, from Japan to Micronesia.
But not just any octopus will do. That signature texture and satisfying “crunch” come exclusively from the legs of madako (octopus). The body, or legs of other species, simply can’t replicate the exquisite mouthfeel that madako offers.
An equally important yet often overlooked element is the tako-jiru (octopus broth). This flavorful liquid seeps out of the octopus during cooking and infuses the batter with deep umami. However, if the broth spills out too early, it can cause burning—a make-or-break moment that tests the skill of the cook. Timing is everything: the batter must be flipped at just the right moment, while it’s still partially uncooked, to lock in the flavor. Using raw octopus yields even more takojiru, but this also increases the difficulty, so it’s worth trying once you’ve gained some experience.
Now, let’s not forget the supporting cast—those behind-the-scenes ingredients that play a crucial role in the magic of takoyaki.
First up is tenkasu, the crispy bits of batter left over from frying tempura (also called agedama in the Kanto region). Rich in oil, tenkasu enhances the flavor and adds a touch of richness, giving takoyaki its distinct savory depth. Though often overlooked, it’s an indispensable backstage player.
Next is beni shoga (red pickled ginger). Its sharp tang and vivid red hue add both a punch of flavor and visual appeal. The spiciness of the ginger cuts through the mildness of the octopus and batter, bringing balance to the overall taste.
Chopped green onions also make a valuable contribution, both in aroma and texture. Some vendors mix them into the batter, while others lavishly scatter them on top as a finishing touch. Their fresh, grassy scent elevates the flavor profile of the dish.
Depending on the region or shop, you might also find finely chopped cabbage in the mix. Its crisp texture and subtle sweetness add to the filling. More recently, modern variations like cheese and corn have joined the ingredient lineup, expanding the creative possibilities of takoyaki.
In this way, the deliciousness of takoyaki is supported by the perfect balance of various ingredients centered around the robust presence of octopus. It is not complete with just the main ingredient alone, which is why it has such a deep and never-ending flavor.
The ｍaintenance of the takoyaki pan determines the taste
In Osaka, takoyaki pans with round indentations are so common that it’s often said, “there’s one in every household.” These pans are essential—without them, takoyaki simply can’t be made. To achieve delicious takoyaki, both the type of pan and how it’s maintained are crucial factors.
Traditional takoyaki pans are typically made from metals like iron or copper. Iron pans offer consistent heat conduction and cook evenly, making them a popular choice. Copper pans conduct heat even more efficiently and are often used by professionals, but they require more meticulous care. Recently, lightweight aluminum pans have gained popularity for home use, but they generally fall short compared to iron and copper when it comes to oil absorption and heat retention.
Proper post-use maintenance plays a vital role in preserving the pan’s performance and the flavor of your takoyaki. After cooking, wipe the surface with a cloth or paper towel—avoid using soap or water. Detergents can strip away the seasoned oil layer, resulting in uneven cooking and increased risk of rust. Copper pans are particularly sensitive to moisture, and even a trace of water can lead to oxidation, so handle them with extra care.
When storing your pan, ensure it is completely dry. Wrap it in newspaper or kitchen paper, and place it in an airtight bag to minimize air exposure. Even if you’re not using the pan for an extended period, occasionally re-seasoning it by heating and applying oil can help maintain its condition.
In recent years, electric takoyaki makers designed for home use have become widely available. These models are safe, easy to use, and allow for precise temperature control. However, compared to traditional metal pans, they heat more slowly and require some skill to achieve the perfect crispy exterior. Teflon-coated versions are easier to clean, but traditional metal pans develop a richer flavor over time through continued use.
For those seeking an authentic takoyaki experience, a professional-grade gas-powered pan is worth considering. Its high heat capacity enables the ideal contrast between a crispy outer layer and a creamy center.
In short, the quality of your takoyaki greatly depends on your tools—and how well you take care of them. With a little dedication to proper maintenance, you can consistently create perfect, flavorful takoyaki at home.
Choosing the Right Container for Takoyaki
When serving takoyaki—especially for takeout—using a purpose-made container is essential. The right vessel not only enhances presentation but also plays a key role in preserving the flavor and texture of the takoyaki during transport.
One traditional container still seen at yatai (street stalls) is the hegi—a thin wooden board bent into a small boat shape. Also known as kibune (ki meaning “wood,” and fune meaning “boat”), these wooden trays gently absorb rising steam from the freshly cooked takoyaki. This helps prevent sogginess and preserves the signature crisp exterior. At stalls, servings are often charmingly referred to as hitofune (one boat), futafune (two boats), and so on.
In recent years, molded pulp or paper-based boat-shaped containers have gained popularity, especially at festivals and street food events. These containers are lightweight, easy to handle, compostable, and eco-friendly—making them a practical choice for vendors and a sustainable one for consumers.
Plastic containers, while highly airtight and effective at retaining heat, have drawbacks. They trap steam, which can cause the takoyaki to become soggy over time. Additionally, growing environmental concerns and rising material costs have encouraged a shift away from plastic toward recyclable and biodegradable alternatives.
No takoyaki experience is complete without the essential pick. Toothpicks are believed to have been introduced from China during the Nara period, originally used for dental hygiene. Over time, they have evolved into a standard utensil for eating takoyaki. Many shops now offer bamboo or wooden picks designed for easier handling, while others may still use clear plastic ones for a clean, modern look—though these are gradually being replaced for environmental reasons.
In short, the container—and even the humble pick—can directly affect how takoyaki is enjoyed. Choosing breathable, sustainable materials helps ensure each bite remains as crispy and flavorful as when it first comes off the griddle.
How to Make Takoyaki
1. Make the Batter
In a bowl, combine dashi stock and eggs, and whisk well. Gradually add flour, mixing thoroughly to avoid lumps. Season with salt, soy sauce, or other seasonings to taste. For a milder, richer flavor, you can also add a little chicken stock or milk to the batter.
2. Prepare the Ingredients
Cut the octopus into 1 cm cubes. You can use slightly larger pieces, but avoid making them too big as they may be difficult to cook evenly. To add variety to the flavor, try adding these ingredients (all cut into small pieces):
Konjac
Cheese
Mochi
Sausage, etc.
3. Prepare the Tools
Preheat a takoyaki pan (with rounded molds) over high heat. Coat the molds with vegetable oil and heat until you see a bit of smoke. Mixing in a small amount of sesame oil or lard will enhance the flavor and make the takoyaki even tastier.
4. Cook
Once the pan is fully heated, pour the batter into the molds in one go, letting it slightly overflow. Immediately add the octopus pieces and sprinkle tempura flakes on top. You can also add any of the following to your liking:
Shiba shrimp
Pickled red ginger
Chopped green onions
Tip: Avoid overfilling with ingredients, as this can prevent even cooking.
When the edges begin to set, gently push any overflowed batter back into the molds and flip the takoyaki quickly. Continue turning them several times until they become round and golden.
5. Enjoy!
They’re ready when the outside is crispy and golden brown. You can enjoy them with store-bought takoyaki sauce, or try making your own with a mix of:
Okonomiyaki sauce
A splash of milk, soy sauce, or sake
They’re also delicious without any sauce at all.
Topping ideas:
Aonori (green seaweed)
Katsuobushi (dried bonito flakes)
Mayonnaise
Ponzu
Dashi soy sauce
Shichimi togarashi (Japanese seven-spice blend)
Chopped green onions
You can also enjoy them Akashi-yaki style, by dipping them in hot dashi broth or grated yam.
Final Thoughts
There’s no single “correct” way to make takoyaki. Feel free to experiment with different ingredients and cooking styles to discover your own perfect recipe!
Recommended takoyaki restaurant
Takoyaki Dōraku Wanaka Sennichimae Main Store(たこ焼道楽わなか 千日前本店)
This historic shop, established in the 1960s in Osaka’s Sennichimae district, offers the classic Osaka-style takoyaki with a crispy exterior and a soft, creamy interior. The flavor comes in the standard “special sauce,” as well as options like “dashi soy sauce” and “ponzu.” Among these, the “kama-tsuki shio” (salt-flavored) is particularly popular, featuring the umami of dashi infused into the batter.
On weekends and during tourist seasons, the shop is often crowded with locals and tourists, showcasing its popularity. Takeout is available, and there is also an eat-in space where you can enjoy freshly made takoyaki. Additionally, foreign language menus in English, Chinese, and Korean are provided, making it convenient for international travelers.
As a representative of Osaka’s gourmet scene, this renowned shop is widely loved by both locals and tourists.
【Address:】11-19 Namba Sennichimae, Chuo-ku, Osaka
【Hours:】10:30 a.m. to 8:00 p.m.
Dotonbori Akaoni Main Store (道頓堀 赤鬼 本店)
This takoyaki restaurant has been listed in the Michelin Guide for three consecutive years and is renowned for its delicious taste. It has been featured not only in domestic media but also in overseas media, proving its popularity and quality.Its standout feature is the extensive menu. Even the standard sauce takoyaki offers a choice between sweet and spicy sauce, and there are also options like soy sauce, rock salt, scallion ponzu, and summer-only specials like ice-topped takoyaki and shrimp mayo-filled takoyaki. Additionally, the “chapuchapu” dish, where takoyaki is served in soup, is also popular.
On holidays and during tourist season, there is often a line in front of the store. It is a popular restaurant not only with locals but also with tourists from overseas. English, Chinese, and Korean menus are also available, so even first-time visitors and guests from overseas can order with confidence.
【Address】1-2-3 Namba, Chuo-ku, Osaka
【Hours】11:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m.
Hanadako (はなだこ)
Located just a 1-minute walk from JR Osaka Station, this takoyaki shop is nestled within the Shin-Umeda Food Street. It’s a bustling spot where both locals and tourists gather in long lines at any time of day. The popular menu items include the classic “takoyaki” and the “negimayo,” which features a mountain of scallions piled high over the takoyaki. Both offer a fluffy texture that’s sure to please. The shop also caters to international visitors with foreign language menus available in English, Chinese, and Korean.
【Address】Osaka Prefecture, Osaka City, Kita Ward, Kakuda-cho 9-16, Osaka Shin-Umeda Food Street 1st Floor
【Hours】10:00 AM to 11:00 PM
Cod has long been an important source of nutrition for mankind. The European culture of cod has a particularly long history, and it is no exaggeration to say that Atlantic Cod has supported European civilization for more than 1,000 years. Salted and dried cod have been used as a high-quality preserved food in every country since ancient times and has supported human history.
Bacalao is dried, salted cod, and is a national dish of Spain, Portugal, and other countries.
One reason for the development of dried fish is that there were good fishing grounds in Iceland, the Arctic Ocean, and the continental shelf of North America, far from the major consumption areas of Europe. Another reason is that cod is difficult to distribute in its raw form, so it is difficult to control freshness. Because it loses its freshness so quickly, cod has historically been distributed either as a very salty salted product or as dried fish that has been dried like sticks. Humans have used the wisdom of preservation and endured hunger for various foods. Cod is just one example of the history of dry food.
First, we would like to begin by identifying what we mean by dry food or dried fish.
Dried foods are not simply raw seafood, vegetables, wild vegetables, or other foods that have had the water removed from them, but are better described as foods that have been exposed to the sun’s energy, which changes the ingredients in the food and adds further value to it. he effects of the sun’s energy are significant, generating the power to sterilize, bleach, preserve, and amplify umami, aroma, vitamins, and many other nutrients.
Food deteriorates and spoils over time. This is due to the action of enzymes and microorganisms contained in the food, oxidation, and other factors. Enzymes and microorganisms generally become less active when the moisture content of the food is below 40%, and almost dormant at 15% or less. Furthermore, when the moisture content falls below 10%, most changes induced by enzymes and microorganisms cease. In other words, by drying food to remove moisture, enzymes, and microorganisms stop working, and food deterioration and spoilage are less likely to occur, thus increasing shelf life. So, dried food is the best preservative food that has a shelf life while keeping the umami of the food locked in.
In Japan, dried food is used as a generic term for foods that have been dried. On the other hand, dried fish refers to dried seafood. This is not a mistake, as dried food also includes dried fish and shellfish, but the line between dried food and dried fish is difficult to draw.
Some classify dried food as that which has been completely drained of water and can be stored at room temperature and dried seafood as that which has only been moderately drained of water to bring out the flavor of the ingredients and needs to be kept refrigerated.
There is also a classification of dried food as that in which the salt content in the ingredients is low, and dried fish as that in which the salt content in the ingredients is high.
Dried foods include foods other than seafood, such as dried meat, dried vegetables, and dried fruits, but this section will mainly discuss dried foods only.
Dried fish was originally processed to preserve large numbers of fish caught at one time when freezing technology had not yet been developed. Dried fish has a long history in Japan, and some books indicate that there were several dried fish stores in Kyoto during the Heian period (794-1185). The history of dried fish is said to be more than 10,000 years old.
Now, let us try to classify dried fish according to the different ways of drying.
Shioboshi (塩干し)
The appearance of Maruboshi
Shioboshi is a fish soaked in salt water and then dried in the sun or by machine. There are two types of Shioboshi: Maruboshi, which is dried as it is, and Hirakiboshi, which is dried after removing the entrails.
Suboshi (素干し)
Suboshi is a dried fish or shellfish that has been dried without seasoning.
Niboshi (煮干し)
Niboshi is a dried fish made by boiling the raw fish in salted water and then drying it. Typical examples are anchovies and other sardines, which are used for cooking broth or made into chirimenjako (dried sardines). It is low in fat and has few peculiarities, so it can be used to make dashi that has an elegant and sweet taste.
Yakiboshi (焼き干し)
Yakiboshi is a dried fish that has had its entrails removed, roasted over a charcoal fire, and dried. Unlike Niboshi, which are dried after boiling, yakiboshi does not lose any of its flavor and is said to produce a pure and rich broth. The most famous type of Yakiboshi is Ago (Flying fish yakiboshi).
Chomiboshi (調味干し)
The appearance of Milinboshi
Chomiboshi is a dried fish that is seasoned by soaking the raw fish in a seasoning solution during the manufacturing process. Mirinboshi is the most common type of Chomiboshi, which is soaked in a mixture of soy sauce, sugar, mirin, and other seasonings before being dried.
Bunkaboshi (文化干し)
Bunkaboshi is a dried fish made by wrapping the raw fish in cellophane, which allows humidity to pass through, and drying it with moisture absorbent material. The name Bunkaboshi was given to this new drying method as an alternative to sun-drying.
Haiboshi (灰干し)
Haiboshi is made by covering the raw fish with a special film that allows humidity to pass through and then covering it with volcanic ash to absorb moisture. Haiboshi does not expose the fish to air in the volcanic ash, and takes a long time to remove water and excess fat, so the fish is not oxidized, resulting in dried fish with little odor.
Kooriboshi (凍干し)
Kooriboshi is a dried fish made by repeatedly freezing and thawing the raw seafood to remove its water content. This process was born in northern Japan, where winters are severely cold.
Kunsei (燻製)
Kunsei is a dried fish made by heating finely ground wood and using heat and smoke to seafood. The result is a dried fish with a unique flavor. Smoked salmon is famous worldwide.
Fushi (節)
Fushi is a fish that is smoked with heat and smoke from burning wood and dried until hard. It is used mainly to make soup stock for cooking, such as dried bonito flakes.
Types of fish used for dried fish
The following fish are raw materials for dried fish.
If the purpose is only to preserve fish, it is better to remove a lot of water. The fish is not only preserved, but the water content is adjusted for texture and flavor, and in addition, proteolytic enzymes in the fish tissue work to produce new free amino acids, increasing the taste. This, we feel, is the very preparation of sushi toppings. The preparation of Edomae sushi has evolved from a sort of the certain struggle of preserving fish as much as possible. We can’t help but think that the know-how of making dried fish is utilized in this process.
Anisakis is usually found on the surface of internal organs, but can also appear on the surface of the fish.
Anisakis is a parasite of fish and shellfish, including mackerel, horse mackerel, sardines, bonito, squid, cod, saury, flatfish, and salmon. Three groups of parasites, Anisakis simplex, Anisakis physeteris, and Pseudoterranova decipiens, are considered to cause Anisakis disease in Japan. Larvae are elongate, 2~3 cm long and 0.5~1 mm wide, and most are translucent white. The species of Anisakis parasitizing fish and shellfish vary depending on the species of fish, the sea area, and the habitat depth.
Anisakis spawns as adults in the stomachs of whales and other marine mammals. When the eggs are excreted with feces, they hatch in seawater, and the larvae are eaten by krill, where they remain as larvae in the krill-eating seafood. Food poisoning occurs when people eat fish and shellfish parasitized by these larvae.
Three to four hours after infection, symptoms such as upper abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting appear. These symptoms are now known to be an allergic reaction to the stomach wall and the Anisakis, rather than direct pain caused by the Anisakis piercing the stomach wall.
Mackerel is the most common type of Anisakis disease case reported in sashimi and sushi. In Tokyo, more than half of these cases are caused by Shimesaba (vinegared mackerel). When serving ingredients such as sashimi, chefs need to look carefully with their eyes to see if Anisakis is present and to remove the internal organs. Anisakis may not be visible, so care should be taken. The food items should not be served as sashimi if they are visible.
Anisakis larvae are parasites primarily on the surface of internal organs. They do not move from the internal organs if the fish is cold and near iced, but they may move into the flesh as the fish loses freshness or over time. For this reason, when purchasing (catching) and bringing home, it is important to keep the fish cold with ice or refrigerant to prevent loss of freshness. However, it is important to note that some species of fish, such as Chum salmon (Sake), have Anisakis lurking in their entire body. Sushi chefs know this and do not use it in Nigiri sushi. In addition, it has been hoped that soy sauce, wasabi, and vinegar may be effective in preventing Anisakis disease. However, the insect bodies are not killed by the amount and concentration used in cooking and the time of treatment.
How to Prevent Anisakis
In 1968, the Netherlands mandated by law that herring to be eaten raw in vinegar be frozen at -20 ºC or lower for at least 24 hours before cooking, drastically reducing the number of anisakiasis cases. The U.S. FDA recommends that fish for raw consumption be frozen at -35 °C for 15 hours or at -20 °C for 7 days, while EU health management standards require visual inspection of marine fish for parasites. The EU standard requires visual inspection of marine fish for parasites and directs freezing treatment (at -20 °C or below for at least 24 hours) for marine fish intended for raw consumption. In Japan, heat treatment at 70 °C or higher or 60 °C or higher (for about 1 minute) and freezing at -20 °C or lower for 24 hours or longer are supposed to kill the parasites.
New Technology for Killing Anisakis
Japan Seafoods, a seafood processing company, and Kumamoto University’s Institute for Industrial Nanomaterials Research have jointly developed a method and device to kill Anisakis by using an instantaneous electric power like lightning to kill them in fish meat. The establishment of a new method of killing Anisakis without heating has brought the risk of food poisoning from Anisakis on non-frozen raw sashimi closer to zero. However, challenges remain, such as downsizing the equipment and reducing costs.
