A Complete Guide to Japan’s Essential Sweet Cooking Wine

Mirin is one of the foundational seasonings in Japanese cuisine. It is widely used in dishes such as teriyaki, simmered foods, sukiyaki, mitarashi dango, and tamagoyaki. Its ability to add gentle sweetness, depth, and a beautiful glossy finish makes it indispensable in Japanese cooking.

While mirin is rarely used in sushi restaurants, substitutes like sugar or sake are not the same. To truly understand Japanese cuisine, it helps to understand mirin properly.

What Is Mirin?

Definition

Mirin is a traditional Japanese sweet cooking wine made from glutinous rice, rice koji (rice inoculated with fermentation mold), and shochu (distilled alcohol). Unlike simple sweeteners, mirin develops its sweetness naturally through enzymatic saccharification and aging.

The result is a seasoning that provides sweetness, depth, and shine — all at once.

Alcohol Content

Authentic mirin, known as hon mirin, contains approximately 13–14% alcohol by volume. Under Japanese law, it is classified as an alcoholic beverage and is regulated accordingly.

When heated during cooking, most of the alcohol evaporates, leaving behind sweetness and flavor.

Flavor Characteristics

Mirin’s sweetness is mild and rounded rather than sharp. It comes from multiple naturally occurring sugars such as glucose and various oligosaccharides.

During cooking, mirin:

• Adds gentle sweetness
• Enhances depth and umami
• Creates a glossy finish
• Helps balance saltiness

Aging also produces amino acids and organic acids that contribute complexity and richness.

Types of Mirin

Not all mirin is the same. There are several categories available in Japan and abroad.

Hon Mirin (Authentic Mirin)

Ingredients: Glutinous rice, rice koji, shochu (or brewing alcohol)
Alcohol: About 13–14%
Salt: 0%

Hon mirin is made through traditional saccharification and aging. Some versions contain added sugar, while others rely entirely on natural enzymatic conversion. Both qualify as hon mirin if made from the core ingredients.

This type provides the most depth, gloss, and authentic flavor.

Mirin-Style Seasoning

Alcohol: Less than 1%
Salt: Less than 1%

This product was developed to avoid liquor taxes. It contains added sugars and flavor enhancers to approximate mirin’s taste.

Advantages:

• Lower cost
• Can be used without cooking off alcohol
• Widely available

However, it lacks the complexity of hon mirin.

Salted Mirin (Fermented Seasoning)

Alcohol: Typically 8–14%
Salt: About 2%

Salt is added to prevent it from being classified as alcohol under tax law. Because of the salt content, seasoning adjustments are necessary when cooking.

The History of Mirin

Mirin is believed to have originated between the Warring States period and early Edo period. There is no definitive consensus on its origins, and two major theories exist.

Chinese Origin Theory

A Ming Dynasty Chinese text mentions a sweet liquor called “mi-lin (密淋),” described as sweet like dripping honey. Some scholars believe this beverage was introduced to Japan via Ryukyu and Kyushu during the Warring States period and gradually evolved into hon mirin.

Japanese Origin Theory

Japan already had sweet rice-based alcoholic drinks such as nerizake (練酒) and shirozake (白酒). Records from the 15th century describe sweet liquors brewed in Hakata.

These early drinks were sweet but prone to spoilage. The later addition of distilled alcohol (shochu) improved preservation and stability, eventually leading to modern mirin production.

From Sweet Drink to Essential Seasoning

By the mid-Edo period, mirin was popular as a sweet alcoholic beverage. As Japanese culinary culture matured, it gradually shifted from being consumed as a drink to being used as a seasoning.

By the late Edo period, records clearly show mirin being used in eel sauce and soba dipping sauce in the Kanto region. From that point forward, mirin became an essential component of Japanese cuisine.

How Hon Mirin Is Made

Hon mirin differs from sake in one crucial way: it does not rely on yeast fermentation.

Instead, shochu is added at the beginning. The alcohol activates enzymes in the rice koji, which break down starch in the glutinous rice into sugars.

Key Steps

1. Steamed glutinous rice is prepared.
2. Rice koji provides enzymes (amylase and protease).
3. Shochu is added.
4. Saccharification and aging occur over time.

During this process:

• Amylase converts starch into sugars.
• Protease breaks proteins into amino acids.
• Sugars, amino acids, and organic acids interact during aging to create depth and complexity.

Pressing and Finishing

After maturation, the mash is pressed to separate:

• Mirin liquid
• Mirin lees

The liquid is filtered and bottled.

Traditional breweries may use wooden press methods, while modern facilities often use mechanical or centrifugal systems.

The Role of Mirin in Cooking

Mirin does far more than add sweetness.

Reduces Unwanted Odors

When heated, alcohol evaporates and helps carry away unwanted odors from meat and fish. Aging compounds also help mask strong smells.

Prevents Ingredients from Falling Apart

Sugars and alcohol interact with the surface of ingredients during cooking, helping them maintain their shape. This is especially useful in simmered dishes.

Adds Depth and Umami

Because mirin contains amino acids and organic acids, it adds more than sweetness — it enhances overall flavor complexity.

Provides Gloss and Shine

As it cooks, mirin forms a light glaze on the surface of food, creating the beautiful shine seen in teriyaki dishes.

Enhances Flavor Penetration

Alcohol helps other seasonings permeate ingredients more effectively, resulting in deeper flavor absorption.

Choosing Between Hon Mirin and Mirin-Style Seasoning

Choose Mirin-Style If:

• You want convenience
• You prefer lower alcohol
• You need a budget-friendly option

Choose Hon Mirin If:

• You want deeper flavor
• You care about authentic results
• You are making traditional simmered or glazed dishes

If using hon mirin without cooking, you may want to briefly simmer it first to evaporate the alcohol.

Storage Tips

After opening, store mirin in a cool, dark place or in the refrigerator. Over time, it may darken slightly — this is a natural result of maturation.

Avoid over-reducing it during cooking, as excessive heat can concentrate sweetness too much.

Availability Outside Japan

Outside Japan, hon mirin and mirin-style seasonings are typically available at Japanese grocery stores and some Asian markets.

Common substitutes such as white wine mixed with sugar or sake with added sugar may approximate sweetness, but they do not replicate mirin’s complexity, gloss, or depth.

Final Thoughts

Mirin is far more than a sweetener. It is a carefully crafted cooking wine that adds balance, shine, depth, and refinement to Japanese cuisine.

Understanding the difference between hon mirin and imitation products allows you to cook Japanese dishes with greater authenticity and precision.

Many Westerners find black nori spooky, leading some to avoid onigiri (rice balls) and norimaki (rolled sushi). Yet it’s an indispensable ingredient in Japanese sushi, with sushi chefs even saying they “eat the aroma of nori.” Its appeal isn’t merely about flavor—it’s supported by scientifically backed aromatic compounds. Let’s take a closer look at how nori’s aroma directly contributes to the deliciousness of sushi.

One of the main components of nori’s aroma is dimethyl sulfide (DMS), a volatile sulfur compound. DMS contributes to nori’s distinctive “ocean aroma” and is detectable at very low concentrations, making nori’s flavor highly memorable. Additionally, nori contains aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, esters, and decomposition products derived from fatty acids. These elements create the nori’s complex fragrance.

Nori also contains umami components like free amino acids, taurine, and inosinic acid. The combination of aroma and taste ensures that the flavor and deliciousness of nori are richly perceived the moment it’s eaten. DMS, in particular, while not directly contributing sweetness or umami, triggers the brain to associate its “sea aroma” with freshness and rich flavor. This creates an effect where simply smelling it anticipates deliciousness. The aroma that gently rises immediately after cutting or upon entering the mouth naturally conveys the seaweed’s inherent flavor, drawing out a deeper taste experience.

Furthermore, there is evidence suggesting an interaction between aroma and umami. The umami components in nori, such as free amino acids (like glutamic acid) and inosinic acid, may work synergistically with volatile compounds to enhance how the flavor is perceived. While this relationship hasn’t been fully quantified, research in sensory science underscores the close connection between smell and taste, highlighting the importance of aroma in the overall sushi experience.

Sushi chefs leverage this property, employing techniques to maximize aroma through nori selection, timing of toasting or searing, and careful storage management. Furthermore, they cut or roll the nori immediately before serving to diffuse its aroma into the air, directly appealing to the customer’s sense of smell. Thus, the aroma of nori is not merely a flavor; it is a crucial element that determines the overall quality of sushi, resulting from the combination of its chemical properties and the chef’s skill.

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Nori (Dried laver seaweed)

Fatty tuna and conger eel, along with squid and shrimp known for their sweetness, are sometimes served with salt instead of nikiri shoyu (soy sauce). A touch of grated yuzu zest or a few drops of kabosu juice are often added for their refreshing aroma.

It can be viewed from three angles: how chemistry shapes flavor, how technique refines timing, and how our senses perceive texture and aroma.

In sushi, using salt or citrus is not merely seasoning—it is a refined technique to balance umami, aroma, and texture delicately.

Salt enhances sushi’s flavor because it does more than just season. Taste receptors in the thousands of taste buds on the tongue’s surface are electrically stimulated by sodium ions from added salt, which send a “salty” signal to the brain. At the same time, sodium ions help glutamic and inosinic acids—the key umami compounds—bind more effectively to the receptors, amplifying the taste response. In other words, salt not only imparts saltiness but also heightens the sensitivity of umami receptors, enhancing the fish’s natural savory flavor.

Furthermore, salt gently draws out excess moisture from the surface of the fish through osmosis. This concentrates umami components such as free amino acids and nucleic acids, while reducing any fishy odor and sharpening the flavor profile.

A small amount of salt is also believed to stimulate saliva production, which helps counter the numbing effect of fat on the taste buds. As a result, flavor compounds reach the tongue more readily, making the sweetness and richness of the fat feel more distinct.

Citrus fruits, on the other hand, are rich in volatile aromatic compounds such as limonene. The refreshing scent that fills the nasal cavity when you chew conveys a sense of freshness. Meanwhile, acidic components like citric acid cut through the heaviness of the fat, leaving the palate clean and refreshed, and making the next piece even more enjoyable.

In essence, salt and citrus engage different senses—the tongue and the nose—not merely adding to sushi’s flavor, but bringing out the ingredients’ natural qualities and creating perfect harmony.

Traditionally, nigiri sushi strives to perfect the taste, aroma, texture, and appearance of the fish in a single piece. Sushi chefs never layer different toppings on one piece, because combining the flavors, aromas, and richness of multiple fish makes it difficult to fully appreciate each fish’s natural flavor in a single bite. The texture of each topping, its balance with the shari, and the beauty of its color and precise cuts are all carefully considered to preserve the complete taste and visual harmony of a single topping.

That said, some sushi restaurants, aiming to showcase their unique style, may serve combinations that emphasize visual impact, such as squid topped with sea urchin, salmon roe, or caviar. Each piece of sushi is a complete dish in itself, and this act is somewhat like eating meat and fish dishes together. In such cases, the technique a sushi chef should employ involves harmonizing the natural flavors with salt and citrus to draw out the squid’s rich sweetness, while meticulously adjusting the knife work to alter the squid’s texture.

This is not to say that modern sushi is bad, as shown in the image at the beginning. Undoubtedly, layered flavors can create a lingering taste and rich depth. Even at traditional sushi restaurants, if regular customers request such modern sushi, it may be served, but in reality, few customers ever ask for it.

In Japan’s past, sushi was primarily known for its light and refreshing taste. Edo-period nigiri sushi centered on toppings like white-fleshed fish (such as hirame) or hikarimono (such as kohada) cured with vinegar or salt, where “freshness” and “clean, light flavors” were prized. Fatty fish spoiled easily and were not particularly favored among Edo diners.

However, as time progressed, food values underwent a significant shift. Advances in refrigeration and freezing technology made it possible to handle fatty fish while keeping them fresh, propelling toro, yellowtail, and salmon to become the stars of sushi. Toro, in particular, was once considered a “discarded part,” but is now celebrated worldwide as the “ultimate flavor.” To modern palates, fatty fish have a “melting richness” reminiscent of marbled beef, and this sensation fuels the popularity of fatty fish.

In recent years, fish such as blackthroat seaperch (nodoguro), splendid alfonsino (kinmedai), broadbanded thornyhead (kichiji), largehead hairtail (tachiuo), bigeyed greeneye (mehikari), and gnomefish (kuromutsu)—once rarely eaten by the public—have gained prominence as premium sushi toppings. These fish are often rich in fat and possess a deep umami flavor, embodying the “richness” and melt-in-the-mouth umami sought by modern palates.

Using fatty fish in sushi demands advanced craftsmanship. For fish like kinmedai and nodoguro, which have beautiful skin, special techniques are needed to highlight the skin’s beauty and the aromatic richness of the fat. Furthermore, to accentuate the natural sweetness in the fat, the temperature and acidity of the shari (vinegared rice), as well as the type of vinegar blend used, are subtly adjusted to balance the umami of the fat with the overall dish.

Through this accumulation of techniques, sushi chefs have refined their skill in “utilizing fat as umami.” Consequently, fatty fish have become not merely “rich ingredients,” but a canvas for the chef’s artistry and skill. Furthermore, modern taste preferences are underpinned by shifts in Japanese dietary habits. Increased consumption of fatty foods like meat and butter, coupled with palates accustomed to processed foods and chemical seasonings, now responds more strongly to rich, fatty, or salty flavors than to subtler tastes. This environment also fuels the growing preference for fatty fish.

Moreover, the influence of media and social networks heightens expectations of deliciousness even before tasting.

Thus, the fatty fish once shunned by Edo-period people now captivates as a “fish representing sushi.” This shift in taste can be seen as a uniquely modern symbol of affluence, born from technological progress and cultural sophistication.

― From the Science of Taste, Culinary Techniques, and Cultural Background ―

Why do soy sauce and wasabi alone complete the flavor of sushi? It is because the umami and aroma of the seafood, the acidity of the vinegared rice, the chef’s skill, and the values of Japan’s unique food culture all unite, come together harmoniously in the mouth.

The umami components in seafood, such as glutamic acid, inosinic acid, and succinic acid, combine with the acetic acid in the vinegared rice and the amino acids in the soy sauce to create a deep flavor. Soy sauce integrates these umami flavors, and its fermented aromatic components (phenols and furanones) blend with the natural aroma of the seafood to add depth to the flavor. Salt tightens the flavor profile by assisting taste receptors, balancing the overall composition alongside the vinegar rice’s acidity.

Furthermore, the pungent compound allyl isothiocyanate in wasabi is also perceived as an aroma in the nasal cavity, uniting spiciness and fragrance to further enhance the multidimensional taste experience.

The unsaturated fatty acids (EPA and DHA) contained in fish fat oxidize slightly to produce volatile components such as hexanal, which are perceived as the “aroma of the sea.” These aromas are released most naturally at room or body temperature. The acidity of the vinegared rice melts in the mouth and enhances the aroma, bringing out the maximum umami of the fish topping and creating a scientifically sound harmony of flavors.

 

The artisan’s skill exists to further enhance this chemical interaction. They perform preparatory steps tailored to the freshness and condition of each topping, removing excess moisture and off-odor to highlight the ingredient’s inherent umami. Cutting techniques are also meticulously chosen for each topping—such as sogigiri (angled slicing), hikkikiri (pulling cut), or hirazukuri (flat slicing)—considering the fish’s fiber and fat distribution to adjust texture and aroma release.

The temperature and firmness of the shari (vinegared rice) are precisely calculated to ensure the fish’s fat melts perfectly in the mouth, creating the moment where aroma and umami unite. Wasabi is meticulously adjusted in quantity and placement for each piece to accentuate its fragrance and balance the mouthfeel. The combination of all these elements creates a single, complete taste experience in the mouth.

 

And cultural background underpins this harmony. This refers to a culinary philosophy that highlights the inherent appeal of ingredients by subtracting unnecessary elements rather than adding excessive flavors or aromas. For example, instead of drenching fatty white fish in strong sauce, it is designed so that the fish’s natural umami and aroma can be felt in a single bite, simply seasoned with the spiciness of wasabi and the saltiness of soy sauce. Whereas Western cuisine is often described as “additive cooking,” building flavor through layers of seasonings and sauces, sushi emphasizes the natural flavors of ingredients through subtraction.

The umami of the fish, the flavor of its fat, the acidity of the rice, and the aroma of the wasabi are calculated to harmonize naturally. In the early Edo period, wasabi was expensive and not something commoners could use daily. However, during the late Edo period, as “hayazushi” (sushi using vinegared rice to shorten fermentation time) became popular at street stalls, artisans noticed that wasabi’s spiciness and aroma enhanced the flavor of raw fish. They gradually began incorporating it into sushi. Thus, artisans continued refining their craft to complete each piece with minimal adjustments while respecting the individuality of the ingredients, establishing the philosophy of harmonious flavors in sushi.

 

Thus, sushi is perfectly complete with just soy sauce and wasabi. The fusion of scientific umami synergy, the artisan’s meticulous technique, and the cultural backdrop of the subtractive aesthetic allows one to experience the depth of flavor and the three-dimensionality of aroma in a single bite. Soy sauce and wasabi are not mere seasonings; they embody the essence of sushi.

― Raw gastronomy supported by science and culture ―

Japanese sushi is recognized worldwide as “safe to eat raw.” In many countries, consuming raw fish carries risks. Bacteria, parasites, and inadequate temperature control can lead to food poisoning. However, a culture where sushi and sashimi can be enjoyed with confidence has been built over a long history in Japan. This is no accident; it is the result of scientific management and laws combined with artisans’ skills and cultural awareness. Let’s take a closer look.

Thorough freshness management via cold chain

When discussing the safety of Japanese sushi, the most crucial element is the low-temperature management system known as the “cold chain.” This refers to the mechanism that maintains a constant temperature throughout the entire process, from the fish being caught in the sea to its arrival at the sushi counter. First, the caught fish is immediately chilled with ice onboard the vessel and kept at a low temperature around 0°C. This minimizes bacterial growth and deterioration of freshness. Then, the fish is delivered by refrigerated trucks from the fishing port to the fish market.

Upon arrival at the fish market, the fish is kept at low temperatures in the auction halls and warehouses, maintaining its freshness until purchased by the chefs. Transportation from the market to the restaurants also uses dedicated refrigerated trucks or containers to maintain a constant temperature. At the restaurants, further management occurs in the sushi display cases and refrigerators, ensuring the quality of the fish remains at its absolute best.

Furthermore, fish like salmon, which carry a risk of parasites, undergo proper freezing during distribution, ensuring they are safe for raw consumption. This rigorous temperature control from catch to plate is what makes Japanese sushi a unique “safe raw food” unmatched anywhere else in the world.

Japan’s globally high food safety standards

One reason Japanese sushi is globally safe is its strict food safety standards based on laws and systems. Japan’s Food Sanitation Act thoroughly regulates the hygiene management of raw fish for consumption and cooking utensils. Furthermore, the HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) system is implemented in all food service establishments, analyzing hazards and clearly defining control points at each stage from fish reception and refrigerated storage to cooking and serving. For example, meticulous hygiene management is routinely practiced, covering details such as temperature control of sushi toppings, parasite risk management, maintaining hand cleanliness, and disinfecting knives and cutting boards.

Sushi restaurants also strictly adhere to these standards. Beyond simply complying with laws and regulations, hygiene awareness is thoroughly instilled during the training of their chefs. Maintaining hand cleanliness, disinfecting cooking utensils, and controlling the temperature of sushi toppings are daily routines across all sushi establishments.

Furthermore, regular on-site inspections are conducted by municipal health centers. These inspections verify temperature management records, kitchen cleanliness, and employee handwashing practices. Violations result in corrective guidance and, in some cases, suspension of operations. This combination of legal oversight and artisan traditions enables Japanese sushi restaurants to routinely achieve a level of hygiene management unparalleled anywhere else in the world.

According to the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Health and Medical Services Bureau, the number of food poisoning incidents in fiscal year 2025 was 114 cases (affecting 1,536 people). Compared to 76 cases (affecting 833 people) at general restaurants, sushi restaurants had only 8 cases (affecting 27 people), a very low number.

Sushi chefs’ rigorous sanitation practices

One of the most critical factors supporting the safety of Japanese sushi is the daily sanitation practices of sushi chefs. Chefs pay meticulous attention to sanitation, just as much as they do to their nigiri-making and knife skills.

Maintaining clean hands is the top priority. Chefs wash their hands between tasks and disinfect their fingertips with vinegar water. Cutting boards and knives are also wiped down and disinfected after each sushi. These practices prevent cross-contamination. Furthermore, during their apprenticeship, trainees are rigorously taught by their masters to visually inspect fish for anisakis parasites and remove them thoroughly.

Sushi toppings are always kept below 5°C (41°F) to minimize bacterial growth. Careful consideration is given to the chef’s workflow and tool placement. Areas for handling raw fish and cooked ingredients are separated, and dedicated tools are used to prevent cross-contamination.

Sushi chefs’ hygiene management is not merely a formality; it is a scientifically grounded “procedure for ensuring safety.” The chefs’ experience and skill are reflected in their daily hygiene practices, allowing us to enjoy raw sushi with confidence.

A culture that values freshness and eating food right away

One reason Japanese sushi is safe and delicious lies in its “freshness-first, eat-food-immediately culture.” This culinary tradition, passed down from the Edo period to the present day, is based on the premise of eating fish caught on the same day. At sushi restaurants, it is standard practice to prepare and serve fish purchased at the market that very day.

This culture maximizes the freshness of fish, rice, and seasonings while significantly reducing the risk of food poisoning.

Summary

It is the combination of tradition, science, the artisan’s skill, and a culture that values freshness that makes Japanese sushi so reliably safe to eat raw. The combination of a culture prioritizing freshness dating back to the Edo period, scientific temperature control and inspection, and artisans’ meticulous hygiene management achieves a level of safety unparalleled anywhere in the world.